The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,701–1,800 of 6,869
Creativity and Problem-Based Learning (PBL): A Neglected Relation
Neber, H., & Neuhaus, B. J. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-4021-93-7_4 · Cited by 24
Foster, A. N., & Shah, M. (2016) · International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations · doi:10.4018/ijgcms.2016070103 · Cited by 23
Teaching and learning in middle schooling : a review of the literature
Dinham, S., & Rowe, K. (2007) · ACEReSearch Repository (Australian Council for Educational Research) · Cited by 23
de Leng, B. A. (2009) · doi:10.26481/dis.20091208bl · Cited by 22
Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science
Buchner, J., & Kerres, M. (2021) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti5080041 · Cited by 23
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialStudents’ mathematical beliefs and motivation in the context of inquiry-based mathematics teaching
Pedersen, I. F., & Haavold, P. Ø. (2023) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2023.2189171 · Cited by 41
“…approaches to teaching such as problem-based learning and discovery learning, have been criticized for ignoring human cognitive structures (Kirschner et al., 2006), recent meta-studies have shown that IBL has the potential to improve students learning of and motivation for mathematics, as…”
BackgroundMethodTeaching and learning science as inquiry: an outlook of teachers in science education
Twizeyimana, E., Shyiramunda, T., Dufitumukiza, B., et al. (2024) · SN Social Sciences · doi:10.1007/s43545-024-00846-4 · Cited by 22
“These findings are in line with existing research-based evidence that asserts that direct forms of instruction would be more beneficial than IBL (Kirschner et al. 2006; Alfieri et al. 2011) unless this approach is offered under maximum guidance (Lazonder and Harmsen 2016).”
Pearce-Lazard, D., Poulovassilis, A., & Geraniou, E. (2010) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-16020-2_18 · Cited by 22
Kjærnsli, M., Jensen, F., Frønes, T. S., Hatlevik, O. E., Nortvedt, G. A., Pettersen, A., & Rohatgi, A. (2016) · Universitetsforlaget eBooks · doi:10.18261/9788215027463-2016 · Cited by 26
Prahanı, B. K., Soegimin, W. W., & Yuanita, L. (2017) · JPPS (Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan Sains) · doi:10.26740/jpps.v4n2.p503-517 · Cited by 22
Computer-Based Learning Environments for Deeper Learning in Problem-Solving Contexts
Wang, M., Kirschner, P. A., Spector, J. M., & Ge, X. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.06.026 · Cited by 24
Self-citationUiboleht, K., Karm, M., & Postareff, L. (2018) · Journal of Further and Higher Education · doi:10.1080/0309877x.2018.1491958 · Cited by 27
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) also claim that minimal guidance during instruction does not support students’ learning and might even have a negative effect on students’ understanding.”
BackgroundA Multiple Streams Analysis of Recent Changes to State-Level Dyslexia Education Law
Gearin, B., Turtura, J. E., Kameenui, E. J., Nelson, N. J., & Fien, H. (2018) · Educational Policy · doi:10.1177/0895904818807328 · Cited by 31
Active transitive inference: When learner control facilitates integrative encoding
Markant, D. B. (2020) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104188 · Cited by 19
The Effectiveness and Impact of Action Learning on Business Graduates’ Professional Practice
Perusso, A., van der Sijde, P., Leal, R., & Blankesteijn, M. (2020) · Organizational Behavior Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/1052562920940374 · Cited by 23
“Similarly, the use of alumni is consistent with Kirschner et al. (2006) and Van de Velden (2013), who argued that alumni are in an advantageous position to evaluate the contribution of a didactical intervention because they can examine it not against what higher education proposes (where standards…”
MethodModeling as sensemaking: towards a theory of modelling in physics education
Sands, D. (2020) · European Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6404/abcc80 · Cited by 18
“developed in class through a process of guided enquiry [29] in which students discussed their thinking with both their peers and the instructor.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFranse, R. K., van Schijndel, T. J. P., Plankman, T. I., & Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2021) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21620 · Cited by 27
“Educational effect studies (Alfieri et al., 2011; Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004) show that open‐ended exploration activities often lead to learners demonstrating prolonged investigation, but also to difficulties with observing and interpreting observations.”
BackgroundImproving student success in chemistry through cognitive science
Hartman, J. R., Nelson, E. A., & Kirschner, P. A. (2022) · Foundations of Chemistry · doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09427-w · Cited by 28
Self-citationTedre, M., & Pajunen, J. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3487049 · Cited by 24
“Later empirical research has criticized some cornerstones of constructionism—such as minimally guided instruction and discovery learning [41]—but con-structionism continues to be popular in CER, yet it perhaps is used more as a high-level design philosophy or principled model than a specific…”
BackgroundBoel, C., Rotsaert, T., Valcke, M., Vanhulsel, A., & Schellens, T. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12126-4 · Cited by 34
“In this way, they lost cognitive efforts due to the lack of instructional guidance, which has proven to be counterproductive (Durwin & Reese-Weber, 2018, p. 373; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Investigating the added value of interactivity and serious gaming for educational TV
Bellotti, F., Berta, R., Gloria, A. D., & Ozoliņa, A. (2010) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.11.013 · Cited by 22
Vihavainen, A., Paksula, M., Luukkainen, M., et al. (2011) · doi:10.1145/1999747.1999824 · Cited by 22
“Unfortunately,itisa publicsecret amongmany respected programming professionals that university programming courses can be counterproductive as non-optimal tools and old academic programming practices must be unlearned in order to develop competence in coding quality.”
BackgroundArndt, P. A. (2012) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/j.1751-228x.2011.01136.x · Cited by 36
Co-construction of knowledge in tertiary online settings: an ecology of resources perspective
Westberry, N., & Franken, M. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9222-9 · Cited by 24
“While Kirschner et al. (2006) have been criticised for equating problem-based and inquiry learning approaches with discovery learning (Hmelo-Silver et al. 2006), there is general agreement that educational settings with minimal guidance are unlikely to support learning in substantive ways…”
BackgroundJorczak, R. L., & Bart, W. M. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.04.010 · Cited by 22
Explaining melting and evaporation below boiling point. Can software help with particle ideas?
Papageorgiou, G. J., Johnson, P., & Fotiades, F. (2008) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635140802037336 · Cited by 24
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark ( 2006 ) maintain that there is little evidence to suggest unguided or minimally guided instruction is effective, particularly for novices with little prior knowledge.”
BackgroundExamples and Tutored Problems: How Can Self-Explanation Make a Difference to Learning?
Najar, A. S., & Mitrović, A. (2013) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-39112-5_35 · Cited by 22
“[2] show that maximum assistance (e.”
A aprendizagem contextualizada: análise dos seus fundamentos e práticas pedagógicas
Festas, I. (2015) · Educação e Pesquisa · doi:10.1590/s1517-9702201507128518 · Cited by 22
Schütte, K., & Köller, O. (2015) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2015.1077537 · Cited by 26
Designing Process-Oriented Guided-Inquiry Activities: A New Innovationl for Marketing Classes
Hale, D. H., & Mullen, L. G. (2009) · Marketing Education Review · doi:10.1080/10528008.2009.11489063 · Cited by 22
“The goal of effective instructional design is to guide learners so that they learn to utilize the information in ways that are consistent with the learning objectives, thereby storing the information in long-term memory (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundData-driven learning and language learning theories: Whither the twain shall meet
Flowerdew, L. (2015) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 22
Inquiry-Based Learning about Technologies in Social Work Education
Zorn, I., & Seelmeyer, U. (2017) · Journal of Technology in Human Services · doi:10.1080/15228835.2017.1277913 · Cited by 22
“…with deep learning interests and prior knowledge profit most from self-directed teaching such as PBL. Studies show this generally for so-called “minimal guidance teaching,” including IBL (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006), and specifically for PBL in social work education (Wong & Lam, 2007).”
BackgroundSriratanaviriyakul, N., & El‐Den, J. (2017) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2017.12.158 · Cited by 24
Professionalising Physics Teachers in Doing Experimental Work
Haagen‐Schützenhöfer, C., & Joham, B. (2018) · Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal · doi:10.26529/cepsj.333 · Cited by 22
“As reasons for this, Kirschner et al. (2006) mention “expert– novice differences, and cognitive load”.”
BackgroundTeaching Computational Reproducibility for Neuroimaging
Millman, J., Brett, M., Barnowski, R., & Poline, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.00727 · Cited by 21
Evaluation of a medication calculation mobile app using a cognitive load instructional design
McMullan, M. (2018) · International Journal of Medical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2018.07.005 · Cited by 23
“However, they also showed that when the learner becomes more expert at performing a skill these worked examples become redundant [12].”
Smets, W., & Struyven, K. (2018) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci8030113 · Cited by 23
“Both strategies were chosen based on Bosker, who calls for a proactive approach in catering for students’ different learning needs and on Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, who appeal for strongly structured learning environments [23,24].”
Wilhelmi, M. R., Godino, J. D., Rivas, H., et al. (2018) · International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education · doi:10.12973/iejme/3983 · Cited by 22
Exploring the Subtleties of Agency and Indirect Control in Digital Learning Games
Harpstead, E., Richey, J. E., Nguyen, H. A., & McLaren, B. M. (2019) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3303772.3303797 · Cited by 24
“to identify an appropriate order or strategy for completing learning materials on their own [17].”
BackgroundSupporting Motivation in Collaborative Learning: Challenges in the Face of an Uncertain Future
Vauras, M., Volet, S., & Nolen, S. B. (2019) · Advances in motivation and achievement · doi:10.1108/s0749-742320190000020012 · Cited by 27
What students do when encountering failure in collaborative tasks
Lam, R. (2019) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-019-0045-1 · Cited by 22
Tian, Z., Zhang, K., Zhang, T., Dai, X., & Lin, J. (2019) · Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education · doi:10.1002/bmb.21327 · Cited by 22
“Conversely, these limitations disappear while processing previously learned information stored in the long-term memory.(6) The purpose of teaching under the guidance of this theory is to promote the construction of new domain knowledge, which is different from the learner's original experience.”
BackgroundInfluentialEffects of providing partial hypotheses as a support for simulation‐based inquiry learning
Kuang, X., Eysink, T. H. S., & de Jong, T. (2020) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12415 · Cited by 22
Lee, J. (2020) · Review of International Geographical Education Online · doi:10.33403/rigeo.637666 · Cited by 22
Singh, N. (2020) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci10110319 · Cited by 27
Digital technology integration
Phillips, M. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.031 · Cited by 22
Goldschmidt, M., Scharfenberg, F., & Bogner, F. X. (2015) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2014.917601 · Cited by 22
“With regard to cognitive load and working memory capacity, a number of studies (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004; Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003) indicate that unguided approaches confronting learners with a free exploration of a highly complex topic generate an enormous working memory load…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialWorking memory and science education: conclusions and implications
Reid, N. (2009) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635140902853681 · Cited by 22
“(Kirschner et al. 2006, 77)”
Problem-Based Learning Approaches in Meteorology
Charlton-Perez, A. J. (2013) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.5408/11-281.1 · Cited by 22
“Kirschner et al. (2006) argue that, since the capacity of working memory is limited, placing heavy demands on it by requiring problem-based searching should be avoided.”
BackgroundSlof, B., Erkens, G., Kirschner, P. A., Janssen, J. J. H. M., & Phielix, C. (2010) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.07.016 · Cited by 22
“Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationTransfer effects of adding seductive details to case-based instruction
Abercrombie, S. (2013) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.01.002 · Cited by 22
An Analysis of Data Activities and Instructional Supports in Middle School Science Textbooks
Morris, B. J., Masnick, A. M., Baker, K., & Junglen, A. G. (2015) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2015.1101655 · Cited by 22
“instruction support for initial problems to offset this cognitive load (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialCognitive Mapping Techniques: Implications for Research in Engineering and Technology Education
Dixon, R. A., & Lammi, M. (2014) · Journal of Technology Education · doi:10.21061/jte.v25i2.a.1 · Cited by 22
The development of scientific thinking with senior school physics students
Al-Ahmadi, F. M. (2008) · Enlighten: Theses (The University of Glasgow) · Cited by 22
Teachers and innovations: on the role of ownership, sense-making, and agency
Ketelaar, E. (2007) · TU/e Research Portal · doi:10.6100/ir732586 · Cited by 35
Mughal, A. M., & Shaikh, S. H. (2018) · Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.12669/pjms.341.13485 · Cited by 21
Using Classroom Observations in the Evaluation of Special Education Teachers
Jones, N. D., Bell, C. A., Brownell, M., Qi, Y., Peyton, D., Pua, D., Fowler, M., & Holtzman, S. (2022) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737211068523 · Cited by 21
“What explains these findings? In research on cognition, it is well established that the cognitive demands of learning are higher when students have limited prior knowledge; when novice learners encounter new problems, they have to dedicate more working memory to coding new information, while experts have the schema ne…”
BackgroundTeaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School
Koto, I. (2020) · Mimbar Sekolah Dasar · doi:10.17509/mimbar-sd.v7i1.22504 · Cited by 39
Kuo, H. (2024) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-024-10511-0 · Cited by 38
“Students then construct preliminary ideas for solutions before entering the STEAM PBL inquiry process (Good & Järvinen, 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Nouri, J., Pargman, T. C., Rossitto, C., & Ramberg, R. (2014) · Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning · Cited by 21
Chaordic Learning: A Case Study
Krusche, S., Bruegge, B., Camilleri, I., Krinkin, K. V., Seitz, A., & Wobker, C. (2017) · IEEE/ACM International Conference on Software Engineering: Software Engineering Education and Training (ICSE-SEET) · doi:10.1109/icse-seet.2017.21 · Cited by 18
“2Chaordic learning is not to be confused with unguided or minimal guided learning approaches that fail to improve the learning experience [34].”
BackgroundScaffolding Project-Based Learning of Computer Programming in an Online Learning Environment
Peng, J., Wang, M., & Sampson, D. G. (2017) · IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) · doi:10.1109/icalt.2017.17 · Cited by 21
“The complexity of such processes may generate heavy cognitive load to learners [20], but is often underestimated by instructors or experts for whom many of the requisite processes have become largely subconscious because of years of experience.”
BackgroundPetrie, C. (2021) · Computer Science Education · doi:10.1080/08993408.2021.1935603 · Cited by 27
Aha! Taking on the myth that simulation‐derived surprise enhances learning
Monteiro, S., & Sibbald, M. (2020) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.14141 · Cited by 23
Chang-Tik, C., & Goh, J. N. (2023) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2020.1799029 · Cited by 21
“Significantly, studies have shown that student-led and inquiry-based activities are very challenging, and students’ skills to collaborate effectively are not self-evident (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundArcher‐Kuhn, B., Wiedeman, D., & Chalifoux, J. (2020) · Journal of higher education outreach & engagement/Journal of higher education outreach and engagement. · Cited by 21
McHugh, D., Yanik, A. J., & Mancini, M. R. (2021) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-021-02516-y · Cited by 24
‘Just Let Them Play’: Complex Dynamics in Youth Sport, Why It Isn’t So Simple
Nash, C. S., & Taylor, J. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.700750 · Cited by 21
Scaffolding in Problem-based Learning
Choo, S. S. Y. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-4021-75-3_8 · Cited by 22
Child-driven, machine-guided: Automatic scaffolding of constructionist-inspired early literacy play
Sysoev, I., Gray, J. H., Fine, S., Makini, S. P., & Roy, D. K. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104434 · Cited by 30
Toma, R. B. (2022) · Canadian Journal of Science Mathematics and Technology Education · doi:10.1007/s42330-022-00197-3 · Cited by 28
Design and implementation of an intelligent tutoring system in the view of learner autonomy
Le, H., & Jia, J. (2022) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-12-2021-0210 · Cited by 21
Fukuda, M., Hajian, S., Jain, M., Liu, A. L., Obaid, T., Nesbit, J. C., & Winne, P. H. (2022) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2022.2062799 · Cited by 20
“While there are disadvantages to withholding guidance (Kirschner et al., 2006), giving too much direction and information interferes with learners’ free exploration and may degrade the”
BackgroundTeaching Electronics: From Building Circuits to Systems Thinking and Programming
Barak, M. (2017) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44687-5_29 · Cited by 21
Irwanto, I. (2023) · Journal of Technology and Science Education · doi:10.3926/jotse.1796 · Cited by 21
“However, in some cases, a single teaching method (e.g., inquiry-based or problem-based learning) was usually found to be unfavorable to learners with limited experience (Ellis & Gabriel, 2010; Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006).”
Ballesteros-Sola, M., & Magomedova, N. (2023) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100866 · Cited by 21
The more, the better? Learning with feedback and instruction
Wagner, S., Sibley, L., Weiler, D., Burde, J., Scheiter, K., & Lachner, A. (2023) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2023.101844 · Cited by 20
Hakimi, M., Fazil, A. W., Khaliqyar, K. Q., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Multidisciplinary Approach Research and Science · doi:10.59653/ijmars.v2i01.368 · Cited by 21
Hoe, A. V., Wiebe, J. P., Rotsaert, T., & Schellens, T. (2024) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-024-00465-8 · Cited by 38
“IL is criticized the most by direct teaching proponents who claim that they are minimally or even unguided and cause cognitive overload in students, which hinders learning (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundWu, Y., & Tsai, C. (2010) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-010-9189-y · Cited by 22
“Many researchers have advocated that guided instruction concurs with our current understanding of human cognitive architecture as well as the cognitive load perspective (e.g., Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundHomemade PowerPoint Games: Game Design Pedagogy Aligned to the TPACK Framework
Siko, J. P., & Barbour, M. K. (2012) · Computers in the Schools · doi:10.1080/07380569.2012.734430 · Cited by 21
“For example, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) conducted a review of constructivist and project-based literature and concluded that guided instruction was superior to projects involving minimal guidance.”
BackgroundBaroody, A. J., Purpura, D. J., Eiland, M. D., & Reid, E. E. (2014) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370008.2014.887084 · Cited by 21
“…as the addition–subtraction complement or less obvious strategies such as subtraction-as-addition, explicit or guided instruction results in more favorable outcomes than implicit or unguided instruction (Al-fieri, Brooks, Aldrich, & Tenenbaum, 2011; Clements & Sarama, 2012; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundThe Affective Dimensions of Mathematical Difficulties in Schoolchildren
Lebens, M., Graff, M., & Mayer, P. (2010) · Education Research International · doi:10.1155/2011/487072 · Cited by 21
“[36]; Graff, Lebens & Mayer, 2007; Lebens [37]) while children of average ability are less dependent on the teacher because they are able to learn mathematical concepts and strategies through discovery and exploration.”
BackgroundAre There Any Joint Effects of Online Student Question Generation and Cooperative Learning?
Yu, F.-Y., Wu, C. P., & Hung, C.-C. (2013) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-013-0112-y · Cited by 21
“Both well-designed instructional materials that exclude unnecessary information, and instructional strategies that help learners to concentrate on the relevant contents, could help them to effectively and efficiently manage their limited cognitive capacity and use germane cognitive loads for schema construction (Kirsc…”
BackgroundRaes, A., & Schellens, T. (2015) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-015-9381-x · Cited by 21
“Kirschner et al. (2006) warned in their article against the pitfalls of un-guided or minimally guided instructional approaches.”
BackgroundBlending Facebook discussions into seminars for practicing argumentation
Puhl, T., Tsovaltzi, D., & Weinberger, A. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.006 · Cited by 21
“Negative effects of over-scripting have been identified (Dillenbourg, 2002), but there is also research pointing to deficiencies of minimal guidance for learning outcomes (Kirschner & Clark, 2006), for instance in open learning environments that may be considered similar to Facebook.”
Corpus et autocorrection pour l’apprentissage des langues
Landure, C., & Boulton, A. (2010) · ASp · doi:10.4000/asp.931 · Cited by 21
Instructional guidance in microblogging-supported learning: insights from a multiple case study
Luo, T. (2015) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-015-9097-2 · Cited by 22
“…debates over the impact of instructional guidance as opposed to the discovery approach, researchers increasingly believe that instructional guidance is much needed across a wide variety of disciplines, learning contexts, and environments (Clark et al. 2012; Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundAligning principles and practice in problem-based hospitality management education
Zwaal, W., & Otting, H. (2015) · Journal of Hospitality Leisure Sport & Tourism Education · doi:10.1016/j.jhlste.2015.01.001 · Cited by 21
Implementing Problem Based Learning through engineers Without Borders student Projects
Wittig, A. E. (2013) · AEE Journal · Cited by 21
Arshad, K., & Imran, M. A. (2013) · Compass Journal of Learning and Teaching · doi:10.21100/compass.v4i7.84 · Cited by 21
A Path Model of Effective Technology-Intensive Inquiry-Based Learning.
Avsec, S., & Kocijančič, S. (2016) · Repository of the University of Ljubljana (University of Ljubljana) · Cited by 21
Improving Law Enforcement Cross Cultural Competencies through Continued Education
Sereni-Massinger, C., & Wood, N. (2016) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v5n2p258 · Cited by 21
A Multimedia Tool to Deliver Professional Development of Vocabulary Instruction
Ely, E., Pullen, P. C., Kennedy, M. J., & Williams, M. C. (2015) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/016264341503000105 · Cited by 22
Badatelsky orientovaná výuka: Pojetí, podstata, význam a přínosy
Dostál, J. (2015) · doi:10.5507/pdf.15.24443935 · Cited by 21
Müller, K., Prenzel, M., Seidel, T., Schiepe-Tiska, A., & Kjærnsli, M. (2016) · Methodology of educational measurement and assessment · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-45357-6_17 · Cited by 21
Anstey, L. M. (2017) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1690 · Cited by 23
Oldmixon, E. A. (2018) · Journal of Political Science Education · doi:10.1080/15512169.2017.1405356 · Cited by 21
“…pedagogical approach that assumes learning is enhanced when: (1) students have cues that activate and elaborate on prior knowledge, (2) information is organized around a cognitive “scaffold,” and (3) internal motivation is sparked (Schmidt 1993, 18, but see also Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundComputer applications for education on industrial robotic systems
Ferreira, N. M. F., & Freitas, E. D. C. (2018) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.21982 · Cited by 21
“…where students learn as result of collaboratively solving real or simulated problems with well-defined objectives, the teacher defines the problem, along with other informations, indicates the tools that students should use to solve it, and the order in which they should be used [20,21,28,29,43].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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