The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,601–1,700 of 6,869
Swan, R. H., Plummer, K. J., & West, R. E. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09778-1 · Cited by 27
Development and evaluation of a visualization system to support meaningful e-book learning
Wang, J., Shimada, A., Oi, M., et al. (2020) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2020.1813178 · Cited by 25
“As well, timely guidance is needed in discovery learning to avoid learner confusion and frustration (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundHistological knowledge as a predictor of medical students' performance in diagnostic pathology
Nivala, M., Lehtinen, E., Helle, L., et al. (2013) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1352 · Cited by 25
“In addition to the practical issue of the ever-expanding curriculum, shifts in pedagogical practices toward more studentcentered and problem-based learning (PBL) have changed the perception of the role of basic sciences in the undergraduate medical curriculum (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundQualitative Assessment of Inquiry-Based Teaching Methods
Briggs, M. W., Long, G. R., & Owens, K. (2011) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/ed100496t · Cited by 25
Yim, H. B., & Seong, P. H. (2010) · Nuclear Engineering and Design · doi:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2010.08.023 · Cited by 26
Assessment of Learning Gains Associated with Independent Exam Analysis in Introductory Biology
Williams, A. E., Aguilar-Roca, N. M., Tsai, M., Wong, M., Beaupré, M. M., & O’Dowd, D. K. (2011) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.11-03-0025 · Cited by 25
“Teaching novice learners to recognize underlying concepts for problem solving requires careful guidance of the learners (Novick, 1988; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundThe effect of guided discovery on students' Physics achievementPreprint
Abdisa, G., & Getinet, T. (2012) · Cited by 25
What to Do About Canada's Declining Math Scores?Preprint
Stokke, A. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2613146 · Cited by 28
“Learning occurs when information is transferred from working memory to long-term memory to be used later (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
InfluentialWhy the Southern Cross Model? How one University’s Curriculum was TransformedPreprint
Roche, T., Wilson, E., & Goode, E. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4029237 · Cited by 27
Teplá, M., & Distler, P. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-04437-3 · Cited by 25
“Kirschner et al. (2006) highlight the possible development of misconceptions and the acquisition of knowledge without the full context when using inquiry-based approaches.”
Corradi, D., Elen, J., Schraepen, B., & Clarebout, G. (2013) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2013.824630 · Cited by 27
Concept Mapping as a Strategy to Enhance Learning and Engage Students in the Classroom
Erasmus, C. J. (2013) · Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Education · Cited by 24
Marei, H. F., Donkers, J. H. H. L. M., Al-Eraky, M. M., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2017) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2017.1372563 · Cited by 27
“2012), and the situation could be even worse if minimal guidance is provided to novice students working on complex problems (Kirschner et al. 2006), as was the case in the current study.”
BackgroundQualitative Methods for Computing Education
Tenenberg, J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.008 · Cited by 24
Zhang, J., Gao, M., Holmes, W., Mavrikis, M., & Ma, N. (2019) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2019.1620290 · Cited by 24
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) reported that unguided open-ended discovery might lead to unproductive floundering, and thus be less effective than direct instruction.”
BackgroundLopes, J. B., & Costa, C. (2019) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20954-4_18 · Cited by 24
Split up, but stay together: Collaboration and cooperation in mathematical problem solving
Abdu, R., & Schwarz, B. B. (2020) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-020-09512-7 · Cited by 24
Shin, S., Brush, T., & Glazewski, K. (2020) · Educational technology research and development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09779-0 · Cited by 22
“However, studies have shown that some IBL learners experience difficulties related to the open-ended nature of the tasks, especially when they lack the prior knowledge and experience necessary to solve the problem (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundElmas, R., & Bodner, G. M. (2020) · European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.30935/scimath/9546 · Cited by 23
Hobbins, J. (2022) · The Atrium (University of Guelph) · doi:10.1152/advan.00126.2019
“Willingham (48) argued that students who focus their efforts on practicing facts until they are memorized can more easily apply this knowledge to HO learning, decreasing cognitive load (21).”
BackgroundMethodA systematized review of research with adaptive comparative judgment (ACJ) in higher education
Bartholomew, S. R., & Jones, M. D. (2021) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-020-09642-6 · Cited by 24
Lin, M. H. (2021) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440211029936 · Cited by 24
“This is because DDL tasks, being inductive and based on discovery learning, may require a certain level of linguistic knowledge on the part of students to cope with them (H. J. H. Chen, 2011; Johns, 1991; Kirschner et al., 2006; H. Lee et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMotivational outcomes of the science outreach lab S'Cool LAB at CERN : A multilevel analysis
Woithe, J., Müller, A., Schmeling, S., & Kühn, J. (2022) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21748 · Cited by 31
Yun, S. T., Olsen, S. K., Quigley, K. C., Cannady, M. A., & Hartry, A. (2022) · Visitor Studies · doi:10.1080/10645578.2022.2075205 · Cited by 31
“…arise, act as an additional knowledge scaffold, or to provide instruction on how to use the technology • Although the role of a museum facilitator is not always straightforward, unguided instruction in complex environments may result in cognitive overload for the learner (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundSchroeder, N. L., & Adesope, O. (2013) · Journal of Teaching and Learning with Technology · Cited by 24
Teaching TRIZ at University: A Longitudinal Study
Belski, I., Baglin, J., & Harlim, J. (2013) · RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) · Cited by 26
(GbL #3) Innovative Teaching Using Simulation and Virtual Environments
Barjis, J., Gupta, A., Sharda, R., et al. (2012) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Information Knowledge and Management · doi:10.28945/1750 · Cited by 24
Beckmann, J. F., & Goode, N. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9280-7 · Cited by 23
Shifting South African learners towards greater autonomy in scientific investigations
Ramnarain, U. D., & Hobden, P. A. (2014) · Journal of Curriculum Studies · doi:10.1080/00220272.2014.966153 · Cited by 26
“Assertion 1: Teachers believe in maintaining a balance between support and learner autonomy There has been a fair amount of debate recently arising from work of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) in which they labelled constructivist approaches as ‘minimal guided instruction’ (p. 75).”
BackgroundGenetics at school level: addressing the difficulties
Chu, Y.-C., & Reid, N. (2012) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2012.732059 · Cited by 25
Information processing: a review of implications of Johnstone’s model for science education
Clair‐Thompson, H. S., Overton, T., & Botton, C. (2010) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635141003750479 · Cited by 26
“However, these methods require learners to search for problem relevant information, which places heavy demands upon working memory (see Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2001; Sweller 1999; Winn 2003).”
Kanar, A. M., & Bell, B. S. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033831 · Cited by 28
“Further, although we expected that both autonomy-supportive and controlling guidance would lead to more positive strategic task performance change than no guidance, the observed pattern of findings support the argument that increasing the level of direction and constraining learner choices may enhance strategic learni…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialKhaled, A. E., Gulikers, J. T. M., Biemans, H. J. A., & Mulder, M. (2014) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3138 · Cited by 31
“Though self-directed learning environments are typically student-oriented, teacher guidance is still important and more effective for novice and intermediate students (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundEvaluating a Problem-Based Group Learning Strategy for Online, Graduate-Level Coach Education
Driska, A. P., & Gould, D. R. (2014) · Kinesiology Review · doi:10.1123/kr.2014-0061 · Cited by 24
Extension and Prerequisite: An Algorithm to Enable Relations Between Responses in Chatbot Technology
Lokman, A. S. (2010) · Journal of Computer Science · doi:10.3844/jcssp.2010.1212.1218 · Cited by 24
Marcus, N., Ben-Naim, D., & Bain, M. (2011) · International Conference on Information Technology: New Generations · doi:10.1109/itng.2011.111 · Cited by 24
“[3] P. Kirschenr, J. Sweller, and R. Clark, "Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problembased, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching," Educational Psychologist, vol. 41, pp. 75-86, 2006.”
BackgroundThe Google Online Marketing Challenge and Research Opportunities
Neale, L., Treiblmaier, H., Henderson, V. R., et al. (2008) · Journal of Marketing Education · doi:10.1177/0273475308329534 · Cited by 24
“Some argue that self-discovery techniques such as experiential learning, accompanied by little or no guided instruction, result in less effective outcomes for students than traditional instruction (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundCendan, J. C., & Johnson, T. R. (2011) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00061.2011 · Cited by 25
“Long-term memory is now viewed as the central and dominant structure of human cognition (4).”
BackgroundInfluentialMorrison, J., Bol, L., Ross, S. M., & Watson, G. S. (2015) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-015-9397-2 · Cited by 24
Uysal, M. P. (2014) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/6125 · Cited by 24
“Without this, it would probably take more time for students to figure out how best to transfer knowledge to the solutions of programming problems (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundBridle, H. L., Morton, J., Cameron, P., et al. (2016) · Microfluidics and Nanofluidics · doi:10.1007/s10404-016-1770-x · Cited by 24
“Well-trained mentors to facilitate the PBL process are critical, as detailed in previous literature (Perrenet et al. 2000; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundTHE EFFECTIVENESS OF INQUIRY BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION IN RELATION TO THE LEARNERS´ MOTIVATION TYPES
Škoda, J., Doulík, P., Bílek, M., et al. (2015) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/15.14.791 · Cited by 24
Longmuß, J., & Höhne, B. P. (2017) · Procedia Manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.promfg.2017.04.003 · Cited by 24
Lee, K.-H. (2017) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-017-0889-x · Cited by 28
“Fourth, there are possibilities where variability is accompanied by exploration that yield only ineffective novelty (e.g., Cankoy 2014; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMcLain, M. (2017) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-017-9425-0 · Cited by 28
Heitzmann, N., Fischer, F., & Fischer, M. R. (2017) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9432-2 · Cited by 31
Finding the Best Types of Guidance for Constructing Self-Explanations of Subgoals in Programming
Margulieux, L. E., & Catrambone, R. (2018) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2018.1491852 · Cited by 24
“If learners are given too little information, however, they spend too much of their cognitive capacity trying to figure out what they should be learning to actually learn (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundBrain activations associated with scientific reasoning: a literature review
Nenciovici, L., Allaire‐Duquette, G., & Masson, S. (2018) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-018-0896-z · Cited by 25
Roberts, T. A., Vadasy, P. F., & Sanders, E. A. (2019) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.284 · Cited by 34
Empowering critical thinking skills with problem solving in higher education
Utami, B., Probosari, R. M., Saputro, S., et al. (2019) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1280/3/032047 · Cited by 24
“For this purpose, structure and support during learning promote cognitive processes of selecting, managing, and integrating knowledge [14].”
BackgroundNewton, X. A., & Tonelli, E. P. (2020) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2019.100833 · Cited by 27
Twenty-First Century Learning and the Case for More Knowledge About Knowledge
McPhail, G. J. (2020) · New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.1007/s40841-020-00172-2 · Cited by 24
Framing Inquiry in High School Chemistry: Helping Students See the Bigger Picture
Criswell, B. A. (2011) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/ed101197w · Cited by 24
Pearlman, B. (2009) · Educational Technology archive · Cited by 24
Podolefsky, N. S., Moore, E. B., & Perkins, K. K. (2013) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1306.6544 · Cited by 24
Muilwijk, S. E., & Lazonder, A. W. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1163024 · Cited by 43
IEPs in the Age of AI: Examining IEP Goals Written with and Without ChatGPT
Waterfield, D. A., Coleman, O. F., Welker, N. P., Kennedy, M. J., McDonald, S. D., & Cook, B. G. (2025) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434251324592 · Cited by 33
“However, learning is greatly minimized, or even prevented, when this cognitive capacity to receive, transfer, and store information is exceeded (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Anchunda, H. Y., & Kaewurai, W. (2025) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101480 · Cited by 55
The Influence of Computer-Assisted Instruction on Eighth Grade Mathematics Achievement
Tienken, C. H., & Maher, J. A. (2008) · RMLE Online · doi:10.1080/19404476.2008.11462056 · Cited by 23
“One complaint against active learning is that teachers sometimes mistakenly leave students on their own, and thus, the learning process becomes unguided and disconnected (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundCentrality Measures and Academic Achievement in Computerized Classroom Social Networks
Reychav, I., Raban, D. R., & McHaney, R. (2017) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633117715749 · Cited by 23
“Although evidence suggests guided instructional approaches provide superior learning experiences, unguided instruction has become popular (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006), particularly in digital environments.”
BackgroundInfluentialKulasegaram, K. M., Axelrod, D. E., Ringsted, C. V., & Brydges, R. (2018) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000002378 · Cited by 23
Debs, L., Miller, K. D., Ashby, I., & Exter, M. (2018) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2018.1551199 · Cited by 33
“Indeed, past research shows that the lack of guidance in PBL and discovery learning may be challenging for students, resulting in lower and skill attainment levels (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundLespiau, F., & Tricot, A. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09482-4 · Cited by 27
Undergraduate Students’ Solutions of Modeling Problems in Algorithmic Graph Theory
Medová, J., Páleníková, K., Rybanský, Ľ., & Naštická, Z. (2019) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math7070572 · Cited by 23
“This is in contradiction to the opinion of [61], which claims that problem-based and inquiry-based teachings are not efficient ways to teach mathematics.”
ResultChen, O., Retnowati, E., & Kalyuga, S. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12317 · Cited by 23
Geography Outdoor Education from the Perspective of Czech Teachers, Pupils and Parents
Svobodová, H., Mísařová, D., Durna, R., et al. (2019) · Journal of Geography · doi:10.1080/00221341.2019.1694055 · Cited by 23
Riffert, F. G., Hagenauer, G., Kriegseisen, J., et al. (2020) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-020-09918-w · Cited by 23
The Role of Relatedness in Student Learning Experiences
Yusof, N., Hashim, R. A., Kaur, A., Malek, M. A., Shanmugam, S. K. S., Manaf, N. A. A., Yee, A. S. V., & Zubairi, A. M. (2020) · Asian Journal of University Education · doi:10.24191/ajue.v16i2.10308 · Cited by 23
“Arguing from the perspective of Kirschner et al. (2006) in their paper why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching, students cannot be forced to be involved in constructivism…”
BackgroundYang, X., Rahimi, S., Shute, V. J., Kuba, R., Smith, G. L., & Alonso‐Fernández, C. (2021) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-021-09974-7 · Cited by 26
“Game-related supports can additionally reduce the strain on students’ cognitive processes during gameplay, clearing more cognitive space for learning content knowledge (Kao, Chiang, & Sun, 2017; Kapoor, Burleson, & Picard, 2007; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialSalchegger, S., Wallner-Paschon, C., & Bertsch, C. (2021) · Large-scale Assessments in Education · doi:10.1186/s40536-021-00107-3 · Cited by 23
“Scaffolding and achievement in problem‑based and inquiry learn‑ ing: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundTemperature Measurement—Inquiry-Based Learning Activities for Third Graders
Gerhátová, Ž., Perichta, P., Drienovský, M., & Palcut, M. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11090506 · Cited by 23
Kim, M. (2021) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-021-10233-7 · Cited by 35
Baroody, A. J., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. H. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12030195 · Cited by 30
Obada, D. O., Bako, R. B., Ahmed, A. S., Anafi, F. O., Eberemu, A. O., Dodoo‐Arhin, D., Oyedeji, A. N., Salami, K. A., Samuel, B. O., Samuel, E. T., et al. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-11330-y · Cited by 27
Kuo, H., Weng, T.-L., Chang, C.-C., & Chang, C. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su15042968 · Cited by 24
Dynamic Visualisations and Motor Skills
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7485-2_22 · Cited by 30
Finding the discipline: Assessing student activity in Second Life
Grant, S., & Clerehan, R. (2011) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.933 · Cited by 23
The Impact of an Inquiry-Based Geoscience Field Course on Pre-service Teachers
Nugent, G., Toland, M. D., Levy, R., Kunz, G. M., Harwood, D., Green, D., & Kitts, K. (2012) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10972-012-9283-2 · Cited by 24
“…has shown that open discovery often results in poor learning outcomes and that ‘‘minimal guidance during instruction is significantly less effective and efficient than guidance specifically designed to support the cognitive processing necessary for learning’’ (Kirschner et al. 2006, p. 76).”
BackgroundTeaching physics novices at university: A case for stronger scaffolding
Lindstrøm, C., & Sharma, M. D. (2011) · Physical Review Special Topics - Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevstper.7.010109 · Cited by 25
Productive Failure in Stem Education
Trueman, R. J. (2014) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.2190/et.42.3.b · Cited by 23
Using Regression Discontinuity to Test the Impact of a Tier 2 Reading Intervention in First Grade
Baker, S. K., Smolkowski, K., Chaparro, E. A., Smith, J. L. M., & Fien, H. (2014) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2014.909548 · Cited by 23
Evolution of Advanced Learning Technologies in the 21st Century
Graesser, A. C. (2013) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405841.2013.795446 · Cited by 26
Merchie, E., & Keer, H. V. (2012) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.077 · Cited by 25
“On the other hand, researchers mainly inspired by cognitive load research (Sweller & Chandler, 1994) are convinced that author-provided maps provide more opportunities to learn from a worked-example (Kirschner et al., 2006; Stull & Mayer, 2007).”
Lehren und Lernen mit neuen Medien
Fischer, F., Mandl, H., & Todorova, A. (2009) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-91831-0_40 · Cited by 23
Enfield, J., Myers, R. D., Lara, M., et al. (2011) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878111408024 · Cited by 23
“Also, both studies used a minimal approach to instructional support which, according to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), is not very effective.”
MethodIntellectual field or faith-based religion: Moving on from the idea of 'digital natives'
Bennett, S., & Maton, K. (2011) · Research Online (University of Wollongong) · Cited by 23
Implementing a Flipped Classroom in Thermodynamics
Lemley, E. C., Jassemnejad, B., Judd, E., Ring, B. P., Henderson, A. W., & Armstrong, G. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--19717 · Cited by 23
Creating, Crisscrossing, and Rising Above Idea Landscapes
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2015) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-47956-8_1 · Cited by 27
Tho, S. W., & Yeung, Y. Y. (2016) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.2203 · Cited by 23
Liou, P., & Ho, H. N. J. (2016) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671522.2016.1236832 · Cited by 23
“…hLM; instructional practices; motivational beliefs; tiMss ARTICLE HISTORY Received 30 september 2015 accepted 27 July 2016 CONTACT Pey-Yan Liou lioupeyyan@gmail.com, pyliou@ncu.edu.tw (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn 2007; Johnson and Johnson 1990; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialWho benefits from a low versus high guidance CSCL script and why?
Mende, S., Proske, A., Körndle, H., & Narciss, S. (2017) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9411-7 · Cited by 23
“In line with prior CSCL and individual learning research, this suggests that low prior knowledge learners often need additional guidance to go beyond shallow learning activities (e.g., Hmelo et al. 2000; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
ResultRhodes, A. E., & Rozell, T. G. (2017) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00119.2016 · Cited by 23
Integration of Sustainability into Architectural Education at Accredited Korean Universities
Rieh, S.-Y., Lee, B.-Y., Oh, J.-G., et al. (2017) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su9071121 · Cited by 23
“These are examples of interesting possibilities of pedagogical innovation, but still in the early stages of experimentation and not exempt from criticism [29].”
BackgroundSoysal, Y. (2019) · Learning Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/23735082.2019.1575458 · Cited by 27
Technology in Teaching Physics: Benefits, Challenges, and Solutions
Ellermeijer, T., & Tran, T.-B. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96163-7_3 · Cited by 23
Children's concepts of gears and their promotion through play
Reuter, T., & Leuchter, M. (2020) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21647 · Cited by 23
Supporting Self-Regulated Learners for a While and What Computers Can Contribute
Kollar, I., & Fischer, F. (2006) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/rk02-7384-2723-g744 · Cited by 23
“…has repeatedly demonstrated that having learners work on problems without external guidance very rarely leads to desired learning outcomes in terms of domain-specific knowledge or domain-general competences (see Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Kollar, Fischer, & Slotta, 2005; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundInquiry teaching, constructivist instruction and effective pedagogy
Taber, K. S. (2011) · Teacher Development · doi:10.1080/13664530.2011.571515 · Cited by 23
McLaren, B. M., Lim, S.-J., & Koedinger, K. R. (2008) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-69132-7_75 · Cited by 23
“Some researchers have argued for providing maximal assistance [e.g., 2], while others, argue for minimal assistance [e.g., 3].”
BackgroundThe Effects of Student Question-Generation with Online Prompts on Learning
Yu, F. Y., & Pan, K. J. (2014) · Cited by 23
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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