The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,501–1,600 of 6,869
How to Teach Evidence-Based Practice in Social Work: A Systematic Review
Spensberger, F., Kollar, I., Gambrill, E. D., Ghanem, C., & Pankofer, S. (2019) · Research on Social Work Practice · doi:10.1177/1049731519852150 · Cited by 30
“…idea of teacher-centered approaches is to have a teacher to support student learning by providing information that explains concepts and procedures (Kirschner et al., 2006) optimally in a way that “fits” the human cognitive architecture (especially not to overstrain leaners’ working memory…”
BackgroundThe Next Generation of Distance Education
Moller, L. A., & Huett, J. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-1785-9 · Cited by 71
How Much Assistance Is Helpful to Students in Discovery Learning?
Borek, A., McLaren, B. M., Karabinos, M., & Yaron, D. (2009) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-04636-0_38 · Cited by 28
“[2,3, 4 ]) argue that higher assistance (direct instruction and/or tutoring of basic skills) leads to better learning results because it provides information that students cannot create on their own.”
BackgroundAssisting learning in e-assessment: a closer look at educational supports
Martínez, M. L., Remesal, A., & Valdivia, I. M. Á. (2013) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2013.848835 · Cited by 28
“Guidance – often described as a scaffolding process – can only fade out once the student has suf fi cient knowledge to provide ‘ internal ’ guidance (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundDeepening Applied Learning: An Enhanced Case Study Approach Using Critical Reflection
Brooks, E., Harris, C. R., & Clayton, P. H. (2010) · Journal of Applied Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.57186/jalhe_2010_v2a4p55-76 · Cited by 27
Cobo, C. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1904871 · Cited by 27
Conceptualizing the Impact of AI on Teacher Knowledge and Expertise: A Cognitive Load Perspective
Rind, I. A. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16010057 · Cited by 27
“Germane load is associated with instructional practices that promote schema construction, reflection, and higher-order thinking (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Huck, J. T., Day, E. A., Lin, L., Jorgensen, A. G., Westlin, J., & Hardy, J. H. (2020) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878119895557 · Cited by 27
“Broadly, the complexity of learner-controlled environments can overwhelm the cognitive capacities of learners (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialSchwartz, L., Adler, I., Madjar, N., & Zion, M. (2021) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-021-09905-4 · Cited by 29
Roussel, S., Tricot, A., & Sweller, J. (2021) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12468 · Cited by 44
Self-citationNicholus, G., Muwonge, C. M., & Joseph, N. (2023) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.136339.2 · Cited by 26
Questioning central assumptions of the ICAP framework
Thurn, C., Edelsbrunner, P. A., Berkowitz, M., Deiglmayr, A., & Schalk, L. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00197-4 · Cited by 38
Boadu, S. K., & Boateng, F. O. (2024) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/15622 · Cited by 27
“COL promotes active engagement, critical thinking, and the development of important skills such as communication and problem-solving, which can contribute to improved academic performance (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
The Effects of Integrated STEM Education on K12 Students’ Achievements: A Meta-Analysis
Chen, B., Chen, J., Wang, M., Tsai, C., & Kirschner, P. A. (2025) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543251318297 · Cited by 46
“To support student learning with complex problem-solving tasks, modeling the task process is often used as a strategy to show students how to approach the task (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Self-citationTeaching programming by emphasizing self-direction
Isomöttönen, V., & Tirronen, V. (2013) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/2483710.2483711 · Cited by 29
“Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to kirschner, sweller, and clark (2006).”
BackgroundMethodImproving the learning of clinical reasoning through computer-based cognitive representation
Wu, B., Wang, M., Johnson, J., & Grotzer, T. A. (2014) · Medical Education Online · doi:10.3402/meo.v19.25940 · Cited by 26
“In problem-based learning contexts, many learners have difficulties separating general knowledge from the problem context and transferring it to new problems (20, 13).”
BackgroundWang, S. (2014) · The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology · Cited by 26
Development of multimedia learning based inquiry on vibration and wave material
Madeali, H., & Prahanı, B. K. (2018) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/997/1/012029 · Cited by 26
Surma, T., Vanhoyweghen, K., Camp, G., & Kirschner, P. A. (2018) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2018.05.007 · Cited by 39
Self-citationMentors of preservice teachers
Lejonberg, E., Elstad, E., Sandvik, L. V., Solhaug, T., & Christophersen, K.-A. A. (2018) · International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education · doi:10.1108/ijmce-12-2017-0076 · Cited by 35
Fraser, S. K., Wright, A. D., van Donkelaar, P., & Smirl, J. D. (2019) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-018-1439-0 · Cited by 26
“Many of the concerns that prompted the development of the PBL curriculum in medical schools are still echoed today and related student-centered interventions certainly have their skeptics [23, 24].”
BackgroundMotivation, Attitudes, and Dispositions
Lishinski, A., & Yadav, A. K. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.029 · Cited by 34
Shi, W.-Z., Ma, L., & Wang, J. (2020) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/20.19.289 · Cited by 28
“CO;2 National Research Council.”
BackgroundInfluentialRadkowitsch, A., Sailer, M., Schmidmaier, R., Fischer, M. R., & Fischer, F. (2021) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101487 · Cited by 26
“However, prior research has repeatedly shown that unsupported problem solving is likely to overwhelm learners, particularly during early phases of skill development (Belland, Walker, Kim, & Lefler, 2017; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
When Wrong is Right: The Instructional Power of Multiple Conceptions
Margulieux, L. E., Denny, P. C., Cunningham, K. I., Deutsch, M., & Shapiro, B. R. (2021) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/3446871.3469750 · Cited by 30
Centricities of STEM curriculum frameworks: Variations of the S-T-E-M Quartet
Teo, T. W., Tan, A., Ong, Y. S., & Choy, B. H. (2021) · STEM Education · doi:10.3934/steme.2021011 · Cited by 36
“Such instructional design offers relatively more structures than the problem-centric lessons and in part, addresses the criticisms of ineffective and inefficient open inquiry lessons [17].”
BackgroundHuang, Y. (2021) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21729 · Cited by 26
Interactive CFD simulations with virtual reality to support learning in mixing
Solmaz, S., & Gerven, T. V. (2021) · Computers & Chemical Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.compchemeng.2021.107570 · Cited by 26
The Effects of Three Instructor Participatory Roles on a Small Group’s Collaborative Concept Mapping
Ouyang, F., & Xu, W. (2021) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331211057283 · Cited by 27
“However, previous empirical results varied about the effects of different instructions on the collaborative quality (Hmelo-Silver & DeSimone, 2013; Kirschner et al., 2006; Stahl, 2009).”
BackgroundResultCrismond, D. (2011) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6091-549-9_13 · Cited by 26
A New Approach for Learning: Interactive Direct Teaching Based Constructivist Learning (IDTBCL)
Gürses, A., Doğar, Ç., & Güneş, K. (2015) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.296 · Cited by 26
Application of Problem Based Learning (PBL) in a Course on Financial Accounting Principles
Manaf, N. A. A., Ishak, Z., & Hussin, W. N. W. (2011) · Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction · doi:10.32890/mjli.8.2011.7625 · Cited by 26
Cheng, M. H. M., & So, W. M. W. (2012) · Journal of Education for Teaching International Research and Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/02607476.2012.668331 · Cited by 26
“Explicit instruction and guidance are more effectual than minimal guidance in developing students’ enquiry ability, as suggested by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark ( 2006 ), based on a review of empirical studies covering five decades.”
BackgroundTaminiau, E. M. C., Kester, L., Corbalan, G., Spector, J. M., Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2014) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12076 · Cited by 27
“Learners who lack task-selection skills should be given advice to help them deal with the on-demand learning environment (Hannafin, 1984; Kalyuga, 2009; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Shin, Schallert, & Savenye, 1994).”
Self-citationDo students’ topic interest and tutors’ instructional style matter in problem-based learning?
Wijnia, L., Loyens, S. M. M., Derous, E., & Schmidt, H. G. (2014) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037119 · Cited by 34
Use of instructional technology to improve teacher candidate knowledge of vocabulary instruction
Ely, E., Pullen, P. C., Kennedy, M. J., Hirsch, S. E., & Williams, M. C. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.01.013 · Cited by 27
“Despite an array of perceived benefits, several technology-based strategies used in higher education lack strong evidence of effectiveness (Clark, 2009; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundBest Practice in Middle-School Science
Oliveira, A. W., Wilcox, K. C., Angelis, J. I., Applebee, A. N., Amodeo, V., & Snyder, M. A. (2012) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10972-012-9293-0 · Cited by 34
Faith-Learning Integration, Critical Thinking Skills, and Student Development in Christian Education
Bailey, K. G. D. (2012) · Journal of Research on Christian Education · doi:10.1080/10656219.2012.698831 · Cited by 26
“…problem-based learning as a means of transmitting basic knowledge has shown mixed results (Colliver, 2000; Norman & Schwartz, 2000; Ferguson, 2005; Kirschner et al., 2006, Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Koh et al., 2008), the most recent meta-analysis of problem-based learning in medical settings…”
BackgroundLanguage, relationships and skills in mixed-nationality Active Learning classrooms
Simpson, C. (2015) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2015.1049141 · Cited by 30
“Several authors (e.g. Kirschner et al. , 2006; Dick, 1992; Perkins, 1992) are critical of how little discussion is devoted to the demands made on the learners, to the learners’ diverse backgrounds and to the expected learning outcomes of constructivist pedagogies.”
BackgroundBiases for acquiring information individually rather than socially
Eriksson, K., & Strimling, P. (2009) · Journal of Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1556/jep.7.2009.4.4 · Cited by 25
O’Neill, D. K. (2012) · International Journal of Research & Method in Education · doi:10.1080/1743727x.2012.683573 · Cited by 31
“Despite Newell's ( 1973 ) doubts about controlled experiments, there remains a powerful school of thought in education research (and a powerful political bloc) that takes them as the only route to valid knowledge (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006 ; Phillips and Dolle 2006 ).”
BackgroundThe ecology of interactive learning environments: situating traditional theory
Johnson, G. M. (2012) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2011.649768 · Cited by 29
“Although not without controversy (Gordon, 2009 ), constructivist approaches to instruction are generally not supported by empirical evidence of effectiveness (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ).”
BackgroundLearning generic skills through chemistry education
Taber, K. S. (2016) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c6rp90003h · Cited by 26
STEM High Schools Teachers’ Belief Regarding STEM Student Giftedness
Tofel‐Grehl, C., & Callahan, C. M. (2016) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0016986216673712 · Cited by 26
Constructivism: When it's the wrong idea and when it's the only idea.
Spiro, R. J., & Deschryver, M. (2009) · Cited by 26
Classroom-based Experiments in Productive Failure
Kapur, M., & Bielaczyc, K. (2011) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 29
Thinking Fast and Slow in Computer Problem Solving
Csernoch, M. (2017) · Journal of Software Engineering and Applications · doi:10.4236/jsea.2017.101002 · Cited by 29
Tsai, F.-H. (2017) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633117705646 · Cited by 26
“In addition, students may learn unstructured science knowledge if using scientific inquiry activities without direct instruction by teachers (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundVisualizing the Complex Process for Deep Learning with an Authentic Programming Project
Peng, J., Wang, M., & Sampson, D. G. (2017) · The HKU Scholars Hub (University of Hong Kong) · Cited by 26
Bjørkvold, T., & Blikstad‐Balas, M. (2017) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21324 · Cited by 26
“Open inquiry can also fail owing to minimal guidance from the teacher (Kirschner et al., 2006), leaving the students on their own.”
BackgroundSpontaneous Mathematical Focusing Tendencies in Mathematical Development and Education
McMullen, J. A., Chan, J. Y., Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Hannula‐Sormunen, M. M. (2018) · Research in mathematics education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-00491-0_4 · Cited by 38
Use of Case Studies to Promote Critical Thinking in Occupational Therapy Students
Allen, D. D., & Toth-Cohen, S. E. (2019) · Journal of Occupational Therapy Education · doi:10.26681/jote.2019.030309 · Cited by 26
“Different forms of case-based learning are designed to promote varying amounts of facilitation, creating the right challenge to stimulate learning (Jaffe et al., 2015; Kirschner et al., 2006; Savery, 2006; Schunk, 2012).”
BackgroundGenerating Knowledge and Avoiding Plagiarism: Smart Information Use by High School Students.
Williamson, C. M. C., & McGregor, J. H. (2011) · Charles Sturt University Research Output (CRO) · Cited by 26
Jones, S., & Edwards, A. (2010) · eCite Digital Repository (University of Tasmania) · Cited by 26
Problem Based Learning for engineering
Kumar, D., & Radcliffe, P. (2017) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2017.8036754 · Cited by 27
Taber, K. S. (2024) · Encyclopedia · doi:10.3390/encyclopedia4040100 · Cited by 31
“…informed formal documentation in national teaching policies [12–16], it has also been seen by some commentators, especially in the United States [17], as indicating an approach to teaching that is motivated ideologically and that falls short of other educational approaches (and, in particular,…”
Using AI for Adaptive Learning and Adaptive Assessment
Khine, M. S. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-9350-1_3 · Cited by 39
Fitzgerald, M. T., McKinnon, D. H., Danaia, L., & Deehan, J. (2015) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-015-9486-6 · Cited by 26
“Some also have more fundamental criticisms of these approaches being ineffective due to their being too open and providing little guidance hence placing too much load on the learners’ cognitive processing (Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundReflections on 4 Years of mLearning Implementation (2007-2010)
Cochrane, T. (2011) · International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning · doi:10.4018/jmbl.2011070101 · Cited by 25
Fitzgerald, M. T., McKinnon, D. H., & Danaia, L. (2015) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-015-9560-x · Cited by 24
“This is also a major issue identified by those critical of inquirybased approaches (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundStenbom, S., Hrastinski, S., & Cleveland-Innes, M. F. (2012) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v16i5.291 · Cited by 31
Rural camp school eco learn - Outdoor education in rural settings
Smeds, P., Jeronen, E., Kurppa, S., et al. (2011) · Jukuri (Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)) · Cited by 25
The impact of 151 learning designs on student satisfaction and performance
Rienties, B., & Toetenel, L. (2016) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/2883851.2883875 · Cited by 25
“First, although more than 80% of learners were satisfied with their learning experience, as evidenced by several leading scholars [25, 26] learning does not always needs to be a nice, pleasant experience.”
BackgroundImplementation of inquiry-based science education in different countries: some reflections
Rundgren, C.-J. A. (2017) · Cultural Studies of Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11422-016-9787-8 · Cited by 25
Exploring Design Characteristics of Worked Examples to Support Programming and Algorithm Design
Magana, A. J., Vieira, C., & Yan, J. (2015) · The Journal of Computational Science Education · doi:10.22369/issn.2153-4136/6/1/1 · Cited by 28
“The exercises for the pretest and posttest were slightly modified (i.e. changing values or sizes) to minimize the testing effect.”
MethodKirschner, P. A., Verschaffel, L., Star, J. R., et al. (2017) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-017-0875-3 · Cited by 25
Self-citationSensitivity of test items to teaching quality
Naumann, A., Rieser, S., Musow, S., Hochweber, J., & Hartig, J. (2019) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.11.002 · Cited by 23
The linguistic nature of Children's scientific reasoning
van de Sande, E., Kleemans, T., Verhoeven, L., & Segers, E. (2019) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.02.002 · Cited by 24
How teachers promote young language learners’ engagement
Oga-Baldwin, W. L. Q., & Nakata, Y. (2020) · Language Teaching for Young Learners · doi:10.1075/ltyl.19009.oga · Cited by 29
“By helping students to recognize the next step, teachers reduce the difficulty of the learning task (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Expansive framing as pragmatic theory for online and hybrid instructional design
Hickey, D. T., Chartrand, G. T., & Andrews, C. D. M. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09759-4 · Cited by 28
Recommender in AI-enhanced Learning: An Assessment from the Perspective of Instructional Design
Kerres, M., & Buntins, K. (2020) · Open Education Studies · doi:10.1515/edu-2020-0119 · Cited by 25
“The positive effect of these structuring elements on learning (especially for learners with little prior knowledge) has been demonstrated in various studies (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Dialogicality in making sense of online collaborative interaction: A conceptual perspective
Arvaja, M., & Hämäläinen, R. (2020) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2020.100771 · Cited by 30
Çetin, P. S. (2021) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c01364 · Cited by 25
Palominos, E., Levett-Jones, T. L., Power, T., et al. (2021) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2021.104871 · Cited by 25
Teaching and Digital Technologies
(2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968 · Cited by 27
Falkner, K. E. K., & Sheard, J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.016 · Cited by 36
Digital Language Learning: A Sociocultural Theory Perspective
Lantolf, J. P., & Xi, J. (2023) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.3218 · Cited by 25
Ganzheitliche Reflexion auf dem Weg zu Selbstorganisiertem Lernen
Jenert, T. (2010) · Alexandria (UniSG) (University of St.Gallen) · doi:10.25539/bildungsforschun.v2i0.76 · Cited by 25
“Mit vergleichbaren Ergebnissen argumentieren Kirschner et al. (2006) gegen den Einsatz sol cher offener Lernumgebungen, da sie sich im Vergleich zu instruktionalen Ansätzen als weniger ef fektiv und effizient erwiesen hätten.”
BackgroundHay, D. B., Williams, D. W., Stahl, D. R., & Wingate, R. J. T. (2013) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21055 · Cited by 25
Cowley, B. U., Heikura, T., & Ravaja, N. (2013) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12013 · Cited by 25
Examination of allostasis and online laboratory simulations in a middle school science classroom
Lamb, R. L. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.07.017 · Cited by 24
Roesch, F., Nerb, J., & Rieß, W. (2015) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2014.1000427 · Cited by 25
“, 2006), (c) process worksheets that could help to structure the experimental inquiry process (Kirschner et al., 2006), (d) prompts in computer-based learning environments with dynamic model systems (Thillmann et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialBenefits of inserting support devices in electronic learning environments
Clarebout, G., & Elen, J. (2008) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.07.006 · Cited by 25
“A doubt recently raised by Mayer (2004) and by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), who all question the effectiveness of discovery or inquiry-based learning environments given that these environments typically involve a large amount of learner control.”
BackgroundCowley, B. U., & Ravaja, N. (2014) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2014.962236 · Cited by 25
“Kirschner and Clark (2006) claim that discovery, problem-based, experiential and enquiry-based techniques are the main tools of games.”
BackgroundA Blended Learning Approach to Laboratory Preparation
Gregory, M. S.-J., & Trapani, G. D. (2011) · Griffith Research Online · doi:10.13140/2.1.3995.3602 · Cited by 25
Huynh, N. T. (2009) · Scholars Commons (Wilfrid Laurier University) · Cited by 24
Using the DODDEL model to teach serious game design to novice designers
McMahon, M. (2009) · ASCILITE Publications · doi:10.14742/apubs.2009.2192 · Cited by 27
Exploiting the Use of Technology to Teach
Schwartz, N. H. (2008) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2008.10782513 · Cited by 25
Cognitive Load Theory: Instruction-based Research with Applications for Designing Tests
Elliott, S. N., Kurz, A., Beddow, P. A., & Frey, J. R. (2009) · Cited by 25
Saçkes, M., Akman, B., & Trundle, K. C. (2012) · Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi · Cited by 25
Student teachers’ emotional teaching experiences in relation to different teaching methods
Timoštšuk, I., Kikas, E., & Normak, M. (2016) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2016.1167674 · Cited by 32
“We bore in mind the ongoing debate about more effective teaching methods (cf. Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006) and noted the prevalent preference for using more student-centred and individualised teaching strategies.”
BackgroundAn anatomy precourse enhances student learning in veterinary anatomy
McNulty, M. A., Stevens‐Sparks, C., Taboada, J., Daniel, A. J., & Lazarus, M. D. (2015) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1590 · Cited by 25
“…specifically on performance data in a professional medical anatomy course, suggest that novice learners require direct instructional guidance for adequate learning, and self-directed discovery is detrimental to this learning process (Mayer, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006; Kooloos et al., 2012).”
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Teaching and learning through open source educative processes
Glassman, M., & Kang, M. (2016) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2016.09.002 · Cited by 26
Tang, X., Kikas, E., Pakarinen, E., Lerkkanen, M., Muotka, J. S., & Nurmi, J. (2017) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2017.01.020 · Cited by 25
Li, H.-C., & Stylianides, A. J. (2017) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2017.1283333 · Cited by 34
“The shift observed in the teacher’s role during the middle part of the intervention echoes the findings of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) that it is tempting for teachers to give up in the face of the challenges they encounter when implementing PBL.”
BackgroundEducational Psychology and the Internet
Glassman, M. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316155134 · Cited by 27
Ching, B. H., & Wu, X. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.10.006 · Cited by 28
Exploring the significant predictors of convergent and divergent scientific creativities
Yang, K., Hong, Z., Lee, L., et al. (2019) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2019.01.002 · Cited by 25
12 tips for effective questioning in medical education
Pylman, S., & Ward, A. (2020) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2020.1749583 · Cited by 29
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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