The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
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Innovative Education and Active Teaching with the Leidenfrost Nanochemistry
Elbahri, M., Soliman, A. B., Yliniemi, K., Abdelaziz, R., Homaeigohar, S., & Zarie, E. S. (2018) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00973 · Cited by 24
Haslip, M. J., Allen-Handy, A., & Donaldson, L. (2018) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2018.1507027 · Cited by 21
Hopper, M. K., & Brake, D. A. (2018) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00149.2018 · Cited by 21
“In developing course materials, faculty were also cognizant to avoid overextending working memory when asking students to problem solve and develop conceptual understanding simultaneously (25).”
BackgroundEntrepreneurial engineering pedagogy: models, tradeoffs and discourses
Svensson, O. H., Adawi, T., Lundqvist, M. A., & Middleton, K. W. (2019) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2019.1671811 · Cited by 25
“…experiences advocated in this paper are designed to be challenging for learners, and consequently, su ffi cient sca ff olding needs to be put into place (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006; Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn 2007) – an aspect of entrepreneurial engineering pedagogy that is overlooked…”
Asking the Right Questions: Using Reflective Essays for Experiential Assessment
Bennion, J., Cannon, B., Hill, B., Nelson, R., & Ricks, M. (2019) · Journal of Experiential Education · doi:10.1177/1053825919880202 · Cited by 29
“Like other experiential programs, a program like ours that uses writing to further education in university subjects seems to work better when experience is guided by experts (Kellog, 2008; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundUsing inquiry to promote democratic citizenship among young adolescents during summer civics camps
Blevins, B. E., Bauml, M., Scholten, N., et al. (2020) · Citizenship Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1386/ctl_00035_1 · Cited by 21
Vogelzang, J., Admiraal, W., & van Driel, J. V. (2021) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-021-09554-5 · Cited by 17
Paciarotti, C., Bertozzi, G., & Sillaots, M. (2021) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2021.1997922 · Cited by 23
Wagner, G. E. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0422-8_5 · Cited by 21
A Learning-Embedded Attributed Petri Net to Optimize Student Learning in a Serious Game
Liang, J., Tang, Y. G., Hare, R., Wu, B., & Wang, F. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Computational Social Systems · doi:10.1109/tcss.2021.3132355 · Cited by 21
“While such minimal guidance might work for self-motivated players, it can be very frustrating for those who lack motivation and prior knowledge, resulting in memory overwork and decreased learning [6].”
BackgroundKillpack, T. L., Fulmer, S. M., Roden, J. A., Dolce, J. L., & Skow, C. D. (2020) · Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education · doi:10.1128/jmbe.v21i2.2143 · Cited by 26
“Instructional approaches that reduce cognitive load by providing scaffolded guidance to students throughout the learning process are efficient and effective, particularly at the introductory level, when most undergraduates do not have substantial prior knowledge of the processes of science (6).”
BackgroundOECD (2009) · Programme for international student assessment/Internationale Schulleistungsstudie · doi:10.1787/9789264063600-en · Cited by 21
Practice Makes (Nearly) Perfect: Solving ‘Students‐and‐Professors’‐Type Algebra Word Problems
Christianson, K., Mestre, J. P., & Luke, S. G. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2863 · Cited by 21
“This is precisely the sort of students for whom unguided practice can be effective (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundApplication of TRIZ in Improving the Creativity of Engineering Experts
Belski, I., & Belski, I. (2015) · Procedia Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.12.379 · Cited by 21
“In essence, these schemas substantially reduce or fully remove short-term memory (STM) limitation in experts [3, 14], leading to superior expert performance in recognition and recall.”
BackgroundTeaching Problem-Solving in Algorithms and AI
Torrey, L. A. (2021) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v26i3.18952 · Cited by 22
“However, its critics point to evidence that some students learn better from direct instruction (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundDesigning and using professional development resources for inquiry-based learning
Swan, M., Pead, D., Doorman, M., & Mooldijk, A. (2013) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-013-0520-8 · Cited by 26
Learning from Computer Games: A Research Review
Tobias, S., & Fletcher, D. (2012) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-33814-4_2 · Cited by 22
Koutrouba, K., & Karageorgou, E. (2013) · Improving Schools · doi:10.1177/1365480213501062 · Cited by 21
“To design and help students carry out a project, bearing in mind that students must be on friendly terms with each other so that their alertness and conscious commitment to active participation are ensured, teachers in SCSs should not only record in advance their students’ preferences as regards their fellow members a…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe importance of supporting technological knowledge in post-primary education: a cohort study
Buckley, J., Seery, N., Power, J., & Phelan, J. (2018) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2018.1463981 · Cited by 22
“Learning is defined as ‘a change in long-term memory’ (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006, 75) and ‘involves the acquisition of knowledge’ (Mayer 2002, 226).”
BackgroundLearning from Productive Failure
Kapur, M., & Toh, L. P. L. (2015) · Education innovation series · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-521-1_12 · Cited by 21
Inquiry based Learning in Computer Science teaching in Higher Education
Gordon, N. A., & Brayshaw, M. (2008) · Innovation in Teaching and Learning in Information and Computer Sciences · doi:10.11120/ital.2008.07010022 · Cited by 21
Interactive teaching of mechanics in a Ghanaian university context
Antwi, V. (2013) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · Cited by 21
Optimizing the instructional environment to learn presentation skills
Grez, L. D. (2009) · Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) · Cited by 21
Kraus, S. F. (2023) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-023-00422-x · Cited by 20
“A free approach termed “exploratory learning” 6 is to be seen critically since high learning effectiveness cannot be expected from such approaches, for the reasons mentioned above (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Nurturing systems thinking among young people by developing business ideas on sustainable AI
Kinnula, M., Durall, E., Hirvonen, N., Malmberg, J., & Haukipuro, L. (2024) · International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.ijcci.2024.100656 · Cited by 24
Li, R., & Feng, S. (2025) · The Journal of Academic Librarianship · doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2025.103100 · Cited by 21
Data-driven Learning in Second Language Writing Class: A Survey of Empirical Studies
Luo, Q., & Zhou, J. (2017) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v12i03.6523 · Cited by 20
Using Model-Based Learning to Promote Computational Thinking Education
Liu, H. P., Perera, S. M., & Klein, J. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52691-1_10 · Cited by 21
Apprenticing the jazz performer through ensemble collaboration: A qualitative enquiry
de Bruin, L. R., Williamson, P. R., & Wilson, E. (2019) · International Journal of Music Education · doi:10.1177/0255761419887209 · Cited by 23
Solnosky, R. L., Parfitt, M. K., Holland, R., et al. (2020) · Journal of Architectural Engineering · doi:10.1061/(asce)ae.1943-5568.0000413 · Cited by 20
Calleja, J. (2021) · Mathematics Education Research Journal · doi:10.1007/s13394-021-00366-x · Cited by 24
Rau, M. A., Zahn, M. R., Misback, E., Herder, T. M., & Burstyn, J. N. (2021) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2021.1888733 · Cited by 22
“This argument aligns with a broader literature that suggests that inductive learning without prior explicit instruction is often not successful (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundAwad, N. (2021) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2021.1931832 · Cited by 20
Larison, K. D. (2021) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-021-00237-8 · Cited by 27
Kastaun, M., Meier, M., Küchemann, S., & Kühn, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703857 · Cited by 31
“…learning (see “Environment (E) & Task (T) as causal factor – scaffolding & inquiry learning”; Kaiser et al., 2018), the valid measurement of CL represents a central goal of educational and psychological research (among others Kirschner et al., 2006; Minkley et al., 2018; Sweller et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMcLain, M. (2019) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-019-09545-1 · Cited by 20
Cheung, J. J. H., & Kulasegaram, K. M. (2022) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-022-10174-y · Cited by 22
“1 3 during problem-solving, and whether these ultimately differ from traditional studies of expert transfer are open to interpretation and debate (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004; Schwartz et al., 2009).”
BackgroundShen, Y., Huang, L., & Wu, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1059858 · Cited by 21
Schneider, B., & Bryant, T. (2022) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370008.2022.2157418 · Cited by 19
“Consequently, the kind of task that we are studying in this study is less appropriate for students who require more guidance (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundPraetorius, A., & Charalambous, C. Y. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-25613-4 · Cited by 38
Kirchhoff, T., Randler, C., & Großmann, N. (2023) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21859 · Cited by 27
Roche, T., Wilson, E., & Goode, E. (2024) · Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice · doi:10.53761/1.21.2.12 · Cited by 43
Handling Heterogeneity in Programming Courses for Freshmen
Capovilla, D., Berges, M., Mühling, A., & Hubwieser, P. (2015) · International Conference on Learning and Teaching in Computing and Engineering (LaTICE) · doi:10.1109/latice.2015.18 · Cited by 20
“We favored this approach over a “‘minimal input” design, as it as been observed to be problematic - especially for science education [13].”
What Serious Game Studios Want from ICT Research: Identifying Developers’ Needs
Saveski, G. L., Westera, W., Li, Y., Hollins, P. A., Fernández‐Manjón, B., Pablo Moreno-ger, A., & Stefanov, K. (2016) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-40216-1_4 · Cited by 21
“This seems to conflict, with a vast body of evidence in instructional research demonstrating the inferiority of minimal guidance strategies [17].”
BackgroundThe practice of eclectic instructional design
Honebein, P. C., & Sink, D. L. (2012) · Performance Improvement Journal · doi:10.1002/pfi.21312 · Cited by 20
Researching and Developing Serious Games as Interactive Learning Instructions
Loh, C. S. (2009) · International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations · doi:10.4018/jgcms.2009091501 · Cited by 20
Gliddon, C. M., & Rosengren, R. J. (2012) · Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education · doi:10.1002/bmb.20645 · Cited by 20
Making teaching of programming learning-oriented and learner-directed
Tirronen, V., & Isomöttönen, V. (2011) · Koli Calling International Conference on Computing Education Research · doi:10.1145/2094131.2094143 · Cited by 20
Rhetoric and Reality: Science Teacher Educators' Views and Practice Regarding Science Process Skills
Molefe, L., & Stears, M. (2014) · African Journal of Research in Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.1080/10288457.2014.942961 · Cited by 21
“The three skills mentioned here are all SPS associated with an investigative approach and may indicate a view that supports practical work associated with direct instructional guidance as espoused by Kirschner et al. (2006), rather than an open-ended approach.”
Backgroundten Cate, O. (2014) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-014-9527-3 · Cited by 20
“If such defense serves as an excuse to alleviate teacher burden, rather than a deliberate educational policy, it may be one of the reasons why constructivism has attained a less favorable press (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
Nanogenetic learning analytics
Martin, T., Aghababyan, A., Pfaffman, J., Olsen, J., Baker, S., Janisiewicz, P., Phillips, R. S., & Smith, C. P. (2013) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/2460296.2460328 · Cited by 22
“, [6, 7, 11]).”
Inquiring scaffolds in laboratory tasks: an instance of a “worked laboratory guide effect”?
Schmidt-Borcherding, F., Hänze, M., Wodzinski, R., & Rincke, K. (2013) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-013-0171-8 · Cited by 22
Lyon, S. W., Walter, M. T., Jantze, E. J., et al. (2013) · Hydrology and earth system sciences · doi:10.5194/hess-17-269-2013 · Cited by 20
“For example, some purely active techniques like discovery learning (where students engage with materials without any instructor support) have been shown to be inferior to guided learning with regards to gaining knowledge (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundDrei Dogmen guten Lernens und Lehrens: Warum sie falsch sind
Renkl, A. (2015) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026/0033-3042/a000274 · Cited by 24
Pankow, L., Kaiser, G., Busse, A., et al. (2016) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-016-0763-2 · Cited by 20
Tribes and Territory: Contestation around Curriculum in South Africa
Hoadley, U. (2010) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1057/9780230105508_5 · Cited by 20
Training 21st-century workers: Facts, fiction and memory illusions
Abadzi, H. (2016) · International Review of Education · doi:10.1007/s11159-016-9565-6 · Cited by 20
DESIGNING A DESKTOP VIRTUAL REALITY-BASED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT WITH EMOTIONAL CONSIDERATION
Chuah, K.-M., CHEN, C.-J., & Teh, C. S. (2011) · Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.58459/rptel.2011.625-42 · Cited by 20
EFEKTIVITAS STRATEGI PENGELOMPOKAN BERPASANGAN DALAM PEMBELAJARAN MATEMATIKA MODEL CORE
Retnowati, E., & Aqiila, A. (2017) · Jurnal Cakrawala Pendidikan · doi:10.21831/cp.v35i1.12628 · Cited by 20
Building arguments: key to collaborative scaffolding
Cáceres, M., Nussbaum, M., Marroquín, M. S. R., Gleisner, S., & Marquinez, J. T. (2017) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2017.1333010 · Cited by 22
“Although one of the advantages of this flexibility is that the scaffolding can be used with a wide range of activities, it runs the risk of not adequately guiding the interactions that are needed for learning a specific topic (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialModeling Student Learning Behavior Patterns in an Online Science Inquiry Environment
Brenner, D. G., Matlen, B. J., Timms, M. J., Gochyyev, P., Grillo-Hill, A., Luttgen, K., & Varfolomeeva, M. (2017) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-017-9325-0 · Cited by 20
Lehtinen, A., Lehesvuori, S., & Viiri, J. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-017-9666-7 · Cited by 24
Facilitating Informed Decision-Making in Financial Service Encounters
Heinrich, P., & Schwabe, G. (2017) · Business & Information Systems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12599-017-0501-5 · Cited by 20
“Experience-based learning approaches (Kolb 1984; Gentry 1990; Kirschner et al. 2006) appear promising for service encounters because they can be immediately applied and offer efficient access to knowledge.”
Backgroundde Bruin, L. R. (2017) · Journal of Research in Music Education · doi:10.1177/0022429417744348 · Cited by 24
Rau, M. A. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000229 · Cited by 20
Tangible User Interfaces and Contrasting Cases as a Preparation for Future Learning
Schneider, B., & Blikstein, P. (2018) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-018-9730-8 · Cited by 20
“Despite the fact that discovery (in particular, before formal instruction) has been shown to be a powerful enhancer of learning (Schwartz and Bransford 1998), the controversy is very much alive (Kirschner et al. 2006), especially with the popularity of lecture-based innovations, such as Bflipped classrooms^ and MOOCs…”
BackgroundNachtigall, V., Rummel, N., & Serova, K. (2018) · Unterrichtswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s42010-018-0020-1 · Cited by 20
Choice-based learning: lecture-based or team learning?
Opdecam, E., & Everaert, P. C. (2019) · Accounting Education · doi:10.1080/09639284.2019.1570857 · Cited by 24
Learning Genetics from Dragons: From Computer-Based Manipulatives to Hypermodels
Horwitz, P., Gobert, J. D., Buckley, B. C., & O’Dwyer, L. M. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-88279-6_3 · Cited by 19
Cooperative Thinking: Analyzing a new framework for software engineering education
Ciancarini, P., Missiroli, M., & Russo, D. (2019) · Journal of Systems and Software · doi:10.1016/j.jss.2019.110401 · Cited by 23
“, memorization is a prerequisite for critical thinking [8, 9].”
BackgroundEffects of case library recommendation system on problem solving and knowledge structure development
Tawfik, A. A., Kim, K., & Kim, D. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09737-w · Cited by 21
The role of productive failure in 3D printing in a middle school setting
Dickson, B. A., Weber, J., Kotsopoulos, D., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-020-09568-z · Cited by 20
Halmo, S. M., Sensibaugh, C. A., Reinhart, P. E., Stogniy, O., Fiorella, L., & Lemons, P. P. (2020) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.19-11-0260 · Cited by 21
“Cognitive load theory suggests that, when students study worked examples, they can focus their limited working memory on constructing the knowledge needed to solve the problem rather than using cognitive resources to search the problem space for a solution (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller, 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialActive Learning Through Toy Design and Development
Şirinterlikçi, A., Zane, L. M., & Sirinterlikci, A. L. (2009) · The Journal of Technology Studies · doi:10.21061/jots.v35i2.a.2 · Cited by 20
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) suggested that 50 years of empirical data do not support using active learning very early in the learning process.”
BackgroundMehra, B., & Robinson, W. C. (2009) · Journal of Education for Library and Information Science · Cited by 20
Generating Proactive Feedback to Help Students Stay on Track
Fossati, D., Eugenio, B. D., Ohlsson, S., et al. (2010) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13437-1_56 · Cited by 20
“However, recent evidence suggests that minimally guided instruction does not work as well as expected [4], and students do benefit from direct guidance from instructors or more experienced peers.”
BackgroundBaxter, P. E., Akhtar‐Danesh, N., Landeen, J., & Norman, G. R. (2012) · Nursing Education Perspectives · doi:10.5480/1536-5026-33.2.106 · Cited by 20
Järvelä, S. (2015) · Journal for the Study of Education and Development Infancia y Aprendizaje · doi:10.1080/02103702.2015.1016747 · Cited by 20
“En la colaboración, muchas cosas pueden ir mal y pueden surgir dificultades cogni-tivas, motivacionales y socio-emocionales (Van den Bossche, Gijselaers, Segers, & Kirschner, 2006), incluso cuando la actividad de grupo tiene un diseño muy cuidado pedagógicamente (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundSchoeman, J. P., Schoor, M. V., van der Merwe, L. L., & Meintjes, R. A. (2009) · Journal of the South African Veterinary Association · doi:10.4102/jsava.v80i1.165 · Cited by 20
Obrenović, Ž. (2012) · interactions · doi:10.1145/2168931.2168945 · Cited by 20
“• Unguided or minimally guided experience and reflection is not effective [7].”
Planning and scaffolding for learning in experiential placements in Australian pharmacy schools
Stupans, I., & Owen, S. M. (2009) · EPubDev Repository · Cited by 20
New Forms of Deep Learning on the Web
DeSchryver, M. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-158-2.ch008 · Cited by 20
“CLT assumes that long-term memory has unlimited capacity and that learning only occurs when changes in long-term memory have occurred (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundKuo, E., Hallinen, N. R., & Conlin, L. D. (2017) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2017.1308037 · Cited by 20
An Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Constructivist Approach in Teaching Business Statistics
Maheshwari, G., & Thomas, S. (2017) · Informing Science The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline · doi:10.28945/3748 · Cited by 20
Blum, W. F., & Schukajlow, S. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-20325-2_4 · Cited by 20
Baur, A. (2018) · Zeitschrift für Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s40573-018-0078-7 · Cited by 23
PhysLab: a 3D virtual physics laboratory of simulated experiments for advanced physics learning
Price, C. B., & Price‐Mohr, R. M. (2019) · Physics Education · doi:10.1088/1361-6552/ab0005 · Cited by 20
“Research shows that guidance is crucial for inquiry-based learning [5], and that the teachercentred use of simulations is the most effective way of using simulations [6].”
BackgroundCoping with Learning through a Foreign Language in Higher Education in Rwanda
Kagwesage, A. M. (2013) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 20
Nursing Student Anxiety in Simulation Settings: A Mixed Methods Study
Cato, M. (2000) · doi:10.15760/etd.1035 · Cited by 20
“” These feelings are similar to those reported by Lasater (2007), whose focus group participants reported, “you could really mess up” or “feel[.”
ResultVeletsianos, G. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118736494.ch14 · Cited by 22
Psychology Learning and Teaching
Trapp, A. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0131 · Cited by 20
Intelligent tutoring systems: a history and an example of an ITS for science
Gobert, J. D., Pedro, M. S., Li, H., & Lott, C. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818630-5.10058-2 · Cited by 24
Glogger-Frey, I., Treier, A.-K., & Renkl, A. (2022) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-022-09577-6 · Cited by 19
“In contrast, protagonists of direct instruction argue that especially learners with low prior knowledge should be directly guided to the canonical solutions and key concepts, avoiding erroneous learning paths that cost valuable time and cognitive resources (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2007).”
BackgroundResultHong, J., Lin, C.-H., & Juh, C.-C. (2023) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2023.2273485 · Cited by 19
“Moreover, Charades combining some light forms of interactivity looks promising to simulate real learning situations (Christiansen & Chater, 2022; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Weng, C., Kassaw, K., Tsai, P.-S., & Lee, T.-J. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12576-4 · Cited by 25
“While technology can expedite learning, the depth and permanence of such knowledge are subjects of debate (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Chengere, A. M., Bono, B. D., Zinabu, S. A., & Woliy, K. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0320692 · Cited by 21
“Additionally, the open-ended nature of IBL can lead to cognitive overload, making it difficult for students to independently design and conduct experiments without sufficient foundational knowledge [17].”
Understanding and managing the complexities in situated learning in immersive virtual environments
Wang, M., Dede, C., Grotzer, T. A., & Chen, J. (2025) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-025-10519-5 · Cited by 34
“As noted in relevant literature (Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004), exploring complex real-world problems may impose a heavy cognitive load on learners, which is detrimental to learning; pure discovery learning with minimal guidance can be less effective than guided inquiry.”
Exploring the Impact of LLM Prompting on Students’ Learning
Mutanga, M. B., Msane, J., Mndaweni, T. N., Hlongwane, B. B., & Ngcobo, N. Z. (2025) · Trends in Higher Education · doi:10.3390/higheredu4030031 · Cited by 23
Comparing effects of two collaboration scripts on learning activities for wiki-based environments
Heimbuch, S., Ollesch, L., & Bodemer, D. (2018) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-018-9283-0 · Cited by 19
Novice teachers’ knowledge of effective study strategies
Surma, T., Camp, G., de Groot, R. H. M., & Kirschner, P. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.996039 · Cited by 27
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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