The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,901–2,000 of 6,869
Wulf, C., Haberstroh, S., & Petersen, M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-31489-7 · Cited by 27
Study Skills: neoliberalism’s perfect Tinkerbell
Richards, K., & Pilcher, N. (2020) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2020.1839745 · Cited by 19
“Once people cease to believe in Study Skills, we argue that what students really need for support is close guidance and additional help from academics in the subject they are studying (Cook, Thompson, and Dias-Lopez 2019; Doyle 2019; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundCrato, N. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-59031-4_1 · Cited by 21
Asma, H., & Sarnou, D. (2020) · Arab World English Journal · doi:10.24093/awej/vol11no4.8 · Cited by 31
Fitzsimmons, C. J., Morehead, K., Thompson, C. A., Buerke, M. L., & Dunlosky, J. T. (2021) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2021.1891009 · Cited by 21
“Learning from correct WEs is effective for individuals with low prior knowledge who are attempting to learn new information (e.g., Chen et al., 2015; Kalyuga et al., 2001; Kirschner et al., 2006; Renkl, 2014; Sweller & Cooper, 1985; Van Gog et al., 2019; Van Gog & Rummel, 2010).”
BackgroundCognitive load considerations for Augmented Reality in network security training
Herbert, B. M., Wigley, G., Ens, B. M., & Billinghurst, M. (2021) · Computers & Graphics · doi:10.1016/j.cag.2021.09.001 · Cited by 23
Haden, P. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.006 · Cited by 28
The task-attention theory of game learning: a theory and research agenda
Cutting, J., & Deterding, S. (2022) · Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/07370024.2022.2047971 · Cited by 26
“This aligns with prominent critiques of “minimally guided instruction” as found in constructivist, inquiry, or problem-based learning (Kirschner et al., 2006) who argue that learners use prior learned schemata to parse relevant information from their environment.”
Richter, J., Lachner, A., Jacob, L., Bilgenroth, F., & Scheiter, K. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12673 · Cited by 21
The Models of Engaged Learning and Teaching
Willison, J. (2020) · Springer briefs in education · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-2683-1 · Cited by 22
Short Tasks for Scaffolding Computational Thinking by the Global Bebras Challenge
Dagienė, V., & Dolgopolovas, V. (2022) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math10173194 · Cited by 27
Wan, Z. H., Zhan, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2023) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21825 · Cited by 28
Cuevas, J. A., Childers, G. M., & Dawson, B. L. (2023) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2023.100209 · Cited by 28
A Critical Analysis of Theoretical Underpinnings of Universal Design for Learning
Anastasiou, D., Wiley, A. L., & Kauffman, J. M. (2024) · Exceptionality · doi:10.1080/09362835.2024.2426801 · Cited by 34
“…for learning to read and write, mastering math problem-solving, and acquiring domain-specific knowledge and skills (Hughes, Morris, Therrien, & Benson, 2017; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Pullen & Hallahan, 2015; Sweller, Kirschner, & Clark, 2007; Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 2019).”
Cohen, M. T. (2008) · OpenCommons - UConn (University of Connecticut) · Cited by 19
Prendre en compte les apprentissages lors de la conception d’un scénario pédagogique
Musial, M., Pradere, F., & Tricot, A. (2011) · Recherche & formation · doi:10.4000/rechercheformation.1483 · Cited by 19
Problem-based learning: undergraduate physics by research
Raine, D. J., & Symons, S. L. (2011) · Contemporary Physics · doi:10.1080/00107514.2011.615162 · Cited by 19
Introduction to “Learning with ICT: New perspectives on help seeking and information searching”
Rouet, J., & Puustinen, M. (2009) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.07.001 · Cited by 19
Marley, S. C., & Carbonneau, K. J. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9259-1 · Cited by 19
“However, empirical evidence from studies examining instructional guidance with manipulatives (Sarama and Clements 2009), and from other areas of educational research (Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004), does not support these recommendations.”
BackgroundGoldin, A. P., Pezzatti, L., Battro, A. M., et al. (2011) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/j.1751-228x.2011.01126.x · Cited by 19
Evans, M. A. (2011) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-011-9194-5 · Cited by 21
“A noteworthy example is the article by Kirchner et al. (2006) titled, Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching.”
BackgroundDécamp, N., & Viennot, L. (2015) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2015.1061720 · Cited by 19
The pedagogical enhancement of open education: An examination of problem-based learning
Gurell, S., Kuo, Y.-C., & Walker, A. E. (2010) · The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning · doi:10.19173/irrodl.v11i3.886 · Cited by 21
“According to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), cognitive load may arise for students in minimally guided settings like PBL.”
BackgroundSlof, B., Erkens, G., Kirschner, P. A., Janssen, J. J. H. M., & Jaspers, J. (2011) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-011-9185-2 · Cited by 19
“…designers, however, must realize that these elements of collaborative problem-solving are those which are carried out by experts and that learners (e.g., novices) need ample instructional support and guidance to approximate such a problem-solving approach (Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Effect of Guidance in Problem-Based Learning of Statistics
Leppink, J., Broers, N. J., Imbos, T., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Berger, M. P. F. (2013) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2013.813365 · Cited by 19
“According to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), PBL is an inappropriate format for this group of students.”
BackgroundDigital literacy in theory, policy and practice: old concerns, new opportunities
Bulfin, S., & McGraw, K. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.026 · Cited by 21
Ericson, B. J., Parker, M. C., & Engelman, S. (2016) · doi:10.1145/2839509.2844623 · Cited by 19
The role of context in a collaborative problem-solving task during professional development
Ritella, G., Ligorio, M. B., & Hakkarainen, K. (2015) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2015.1062412 · Cited by 18
“…strategic exploratory orientation at school an important pedagogical objective (Flum & Kaplan, 2006), some regard explorative behaviours as ineffective for learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006) and others value the epistemic importance of such behaviours for problem-solvers (Kirsh, 2006).”
BackgroundBergstrom, C. M., Pugh, K. J., Phillips, M. M., & Machlev, M. (2016) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2015.1083521 · Cited by 31
“In a review and critique of previous research on discovery learning, Kirschner et al. (2006) made a distinction based on students’ expertise level and argued that direct instruction has proven to be more effective at fostering learning for novices when compared to PBL and other constructivist instruction.”
BackgroundInfluentialGiacalone, D. (2016) · Higher Learning Research Communications · doi:10.18870/hlrc.v6i3.304 · Cited by 19
“, C4 and Q4), and seem to corroborate earlier claims that the effectiveness of CBT is positively related to student expertise (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHeikkilä, A.-S., Vuopala, E., & Leinonen, T. (2017) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2017.1322529 · Cited by 19
Explicating the Characteristics of STEM Teaching and Learning: A Metasynthesis
Nite, S., Capraro, M. M., Capraro, R. M., & Biçer, A. (2017) · Journal of STEM Teacher Education · doi:10.30707/jste52.1nite · Cited by 19
“…he also found that “when learners are asked to select between a more or a less unguided version of the same course, less able learners who choose less guided approaches tend to like the experience even though they learn less from it” (Clark, 1982; as cited in Kirschner et al., 2006, p. 82).”
BackgroundTo Flip or Not to Flip: What Are the Questions?
Simonson, S. R. (2017) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci7030071 · Cited by 21
“In these situations, considerable scaffolding may be required to help students understand the content/concepts [13,32,34].”
BackgroundPre-service Primary Science Teachers’ Abilities for Solving a Measurement Problem Through Inquiry
García–Carmona, A. (2017) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-017-9858-7 · Cited by 19
Dynamic Software, Task Solving With or Without Guidelines, and Learning Outcomes
Olsson, J., & Granberg, C. (2018) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-018-9352-5 · Cited by 19
“Among the researchers advocating direct instructions, Kirschner et al. (2006) claim that approaches offering no or minimal guided instructions are likely to be ineffective.”
BackgroundStarkey, E. M., McKay, A. S., Hunter, S. T., & Miller, S. R. (2018) · Journal of Mechanical Design · doi:10.1115/1.4039384 · Cited by 19
Exploring practices of science coordinators participating in targeted professional development
Whitworth, B. A., Maeng, J. L., & Bell, R. L. (2018) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21337 · Cited by 18
Li, Q. (2018) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-018-9584-z · Cited by 19
“Various researchers (Davis and Sumara 2002; Kirschner et al. 2006; McPhail 2016) have argued that such dualistic perspectives have shortcomings and called for alternative paradigms.”
BackgroundAssessing Shiny apps through student feedback: Recommendations from a qualitative study
González, J. A., López, M., Cobo, E., & Cortés, J. (2018) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.21932 · Cited by 19
“Although there is general agreement that a guided approach is needed to ensure that students improve their learning [11,14], we were unable to find enough guidelines about the best design for boosting student discovery.”
BackgroundAn Intervention-Based Active-Learning Strategy To Enhance Student Performance in Mathematics
Sidhu, G., & Srinivasan, S. (2018) · IJPTE International Journal of Pedagogy and Teacher Education · doi:10.20961/ijpte.v2i1.19568 · Cited by 19
Effectiveness of English Preposition Learning through Data-Driven Learning (DDL)
Boontam, P., & Phoocharoensil, S. (2018) · 3L The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies · doi:10.17576/3l-2018-2403-10 · Cited by 19
Ketenci, T., Calandra, B. D., Margulieux, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2019) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2018.1553024 · Cited by 21
“The instructional design included self-paced, direct instruction (Anderson, Reder, & Simon, 1999; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006) to introduce App Inventor features and some computing concepts, plus less structured computational problem-solving activities (Guzdial, 2009) created to promote…”
MethodWitt, C. M., Sandoe, K., Dunlap, J. C., & Léon, K. (2019) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2019.02.003 · Cited by 24
Teachers' implementation of laboratory practicals in the South African physical sciences curriculum
Gudyanga, R., & Jita, L. C. (2019) · Issues in educational research · Cited by 19
Xenofontos, N. A., Hovardas, T., Zacharia, Z. C., & de Jong, T. (2019) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12384 · Cited by 19
Xinning, P., Jin, Y., Tainian, Z., & Zhao, J. (2020) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2019.1710000 · Cited by 19
Integration of Formal, Non-formal and Informal Learning Through MOOCs
Cha, H., & So, H. (2020) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4276-3_9 · Cited by 19
“There is sufficient evidence that direct instruction is effective for delivering declarative knowledge to learners and for reducing cognitive load (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundUus, Õ., Seitlinger, P. C., & Ley, T. T. (2020) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103089 · Cited by 19
Millanzi, W. C., & Kibusi, S. M. (2020) · Nursing Open · doi:10.1002/nop2.514 · Cited by 19
Futures for research in education
Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2020) · Educational Philosophy and Theory · doi:10.1080/00131857.2020.1824781 · Cited by 19
Teaching Computational Thinking to Multilingual Students through Inquiry-based Learning
Jacob, S. R., Nguyen, H., Garcia, L. Y., Richardson, D. J., & Warschauer, M. (2020) · Research on Equity and Sustained Participation in Engineering, Computing, and Technology (RESPECT) · doi:10.1109/respect49803.2020.9272487 · Cited by 19
“Studies have indicated that providing worked examples reduces the tax on working memory and opens up the resources necessary for learning [39].”
Background‘Those First Few Months Were Horrible’
Collins, H., Dailey-Strand, C., & Callaghan, D. R. (2021) · Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education · doi:10.32674/jcihe.v13i4.3267 · Cited by 29
“Discovery style teaching (Kirschner et al., 2006) was well received: “… I love the action learning sets that we work in…” (In F 21) and the relaxed environment, and “less formal teaching than [at] home…” (Ch F 20).”
BackgroundCorpus linguistics and data-driven learning : a critical overview
Boulton, A., & Tyne, H. (2013) · reroDoc Digital Library · doi:10.5169/seals-978589 · Cited by 19
Ensino, formação profissional e a questão da mão de obra
Schwartzman, S., & Castro, C. D. M. (2013) · Ensaio Avaliação e Políticas Públicas em Educação · doi:10.1590/s0104-40362013000300010 · Cited by 19
“HMELO-SILVER, C. E.; DUNCAN, R. G.; CHINN, C. A. Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundYip, J. C., Ahn, J., Clegg, T., Bonsignore, E., Pauw, D., & Gubbels, M. (2014) · ACM International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC) · doi:10.1145/2593968.2593969 · Cited by 20
“However, for science learning, an expansive platform like TwitterTM can tax a learner’s cognitive load [26].”
BackgroundPromoting College Students’ Problem Understanding Using Schema-Emphasizing Worked Examples
Yan, J., & Lavigne, N. C. (2013) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2012.745466 · Cited by 19
Slof, B., Erkens, G., Kirschner, P. A., & Helms‐Lorenz, M. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.07.019 · Cited by 19
Self-citationNew directions in medical education related to psychiatry
Verduin, M. L., BOLAND, R. J., & Guthrie, T. M. (2013) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/09540261.2013.784958 · Cited by 19
“However, there remain sceptics who argue that, at best, inquiry-based teaching is as effective as traditional teaching, and the reliance on self-directed learning risks misguided or incomplete learning (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundElstad, E. (2008) · Learning Inquiry · doi:10.1007/s11519-008-0027-3 · Cited by 19
Understanding physics in relation to working memory
Chen, W., & Whitehead, R. R. (2009) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635140902853624 · Cited by 19
“However, the review of Kirschner et al. (2006, 76) makes the point very clearly when they note that, ‘Any instructional procedure that ignores the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture is not likely to be effective’.”
BackgroundEnquiry-based learning: experiences of first year chemistry students learning spectroscopy
Lucas, T., & Rowley, N. M. (2011) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c0rp90016h · Cited by 19
Why advice on task selection may hamper learning in on-demand education
Taminiau, E. M. C., Kester, L., Corbalan, G., Alessi, S. M., Moxnes, E., Gijselaers, W., Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2012) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.07.028 · Cited by 20
“This is in line with the warning some researchers give for providing insuffi-cient advice (Kirschner et al., 2006), which might not improve or might even hamper the development of domain-specific skills.”
Self-citationBeerenwinkel, A., & von Arx, M. (2016) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-015-9497-3 · Cited by 19
“Against this background, Kirschner et al. (2006) argued that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than guided instruction because it contradicts the current “knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, and cognitive load” (p. 75).”
Dierker, L., Alexander, J., Cooper, J., Selya, A., Rose, J. S., & Dasgupta, N. (2016) · International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning · doi:10.20429/ijsotl.2016.100102 · Cited by 21
Blessinger, P., & Carfora, J. M. (2014) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s2055-364120140000002030 · Cited by 22
Molefe, L., Stears, M., & Hobden, S. (2016) · South African Journal of Education · doi:10.15700/saje.v36n3a1279 · Cited by 19
Developing a Constructivist Model for Effective Physics Learning
Aina, J. K. (2017) · International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development · doi:10.31142/ijtsrd85 · Cited by 20
Clark, R. E., & Clark, V. P. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.012 · Cited by 19
Self-citationDurning, S. J. (2011) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20110909sd · Cited by 19
Metacognition and the Development of Intercultural Competence
Lane, H. C. (2007) · doi:10.21236/ada470403 · Cited by 19
Helping Therapists to Each Day Become a Little Better than They Were the Day Before
Goodyear, R. K., & Rousmaniere, T. G. (2017) · doi:10.1002/9781119165590.ch4 · Cited by 19
Collaborative Problem Solving: Social and Developmental Considerations
Gauvain, M. (2018) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100618813370 · Cited by 23
Brod, G. (2021) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100621997376 · Cited by 20
“…students will benefit from learning activities in which they have to construct understanding themselves, as is the case in many active-learning practices; whereas students with high levels of prior knowledge can benefit, students with little prior knowledge often struggle (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundNeber, H. (2021) · International Journal for Talent Development and Creativity · doi:10.7202/1076754ar · Cited by 18
“Nevertheless, it is currently used as an argument for attacking and rejecting discovery learning, thereby favoring what is assumed to be extremely structured, directly guided instruction for all students (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006; Stokke, 2015).”
Guided inquiry‐based learning to enhance student engagement, confidence, and learning
Nguyen, V. H., Halpin, R. M., & Joy‐Thomas, A. R. (2024) · Journal of Dental Education · doi:10.1002/jdd.13531 · Cited by 19
What the Science of Learning Teaches Us About Arithmetic Fluency
McNeil, N. M., Jordan, N. C., Viegut, A. A., & Ansari, D. (2025) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/15291006241287726 · Cited by 36
“The belief that students can “pick it up” if they are immersed in a rich environment hinders students’ mathematical development (cf. Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Carnegie, J. (2015) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.14-08-0132 · Cited by 17
“While there are conflicting views in the literature regarding the amount of guidance that should be provided to students, ranging from purely constructivist approaches to a defined curriculum supported by didactic lectures, a strong case has been made for the provision of a reasonable level of guidance that is specifi…”
Background‘The best app is the teacher’ Introducing classroom scripts in technology‐enhanced education
Montrieux, H., Raes, A., & Schellens, T. (2017) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12177 · Cited by 18
“Research of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) shows that minimal guidance during inquiry-based activities is insuf fi cient.”
BackgroundResultStudents Acquiring Expertise through Student-Centered Learning in Mathematics Lessons
Eronen, L., & Kärnä, E. (2017) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2017.1306797 · Cited by 27
“According to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), these are minimally guided approaches.”
BackgroundUnderstanding student questioning
Singh, G., Shaikh, R., & Haydock, K. (2019) · Cultural Studies of Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11422-018-9866-0 · Cited by 18
Arts-Based Instructional and Curricular Strategies for Working With Virtual Educational Applications
Steele, P. B., Johnston, E., Lawlor, A. C., et al. (2018) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.1177/0047239518803286 · Cited by 18
“Some researchers have suggested that student-centered pedagogies might be more effective with support or guidance from educators for learners at any level (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe educational effectiveness of serious games
Rebah, H. B., & slama, R. B. (2019) · Médiations et médiatisations · doi:10.52358/mm.vi2.97 · Cited by 18
A Case Study of the Design Practices and Judgments of Novice Instructional Designers
Zhu, M., Basdogan, M., & Bonk, C. J. (2020) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/7829 · Cited by 22
“To address this issue, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) suggested providing scaffolded support and guidance to help novices acquire problem-solving skills.”
BackgroundFraming the constructive alignment of design within technology subjects in general education
Buckley, J., Seery, N., Gumaelius, L., Canty, D., Doyle, A., & Pears, A. (2020) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-020-09585-y · Cited by 20
Girl-Friendly Computer Science Classroom: Czechitas Experience Report
Bühnová, B., & Happe, J. (2020) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-59155-7_10 · Cited by 19
Research-Based Game Design for Serious Games
Watt, K., & Smith, T. (2021) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/10468781211006758 · Cited by 26
“When a student is searching long-term memory for a way to solve a given problem, that memory store is unavailable for learning (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller, et al., 1982).”
BackgroundInfluentialImpact and Design of a National-scale Professional Development Program for Mathematics Teachers
Lindvall, J., Helenius, O., Eriksson, K., & Ryve, A. (2021) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2021.1910563 · Cited by 18
“Researchers have debated which instructional practices are the most effective for improving student achievement (see for example Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundHow kids manage self-directed programming projects: Strategies and structures
Brennan, K. A. (2021) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2021.1936531 · Cited by 25
“…(Ausubel, 1964), some researchers critique discovery learn-ing’s misalignment with present knowledge about human cognition, arguing that it should be treated with profound skepticism and that strong guidance (namely, direct instruction) should be preferred (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundHo, H. N. J., Liang, J., & Tsai, C. (2021) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-021-10205-x · Cited by 22
“Comparing to direct instructions, the constructivist-oriented pedagogy placed more and different demands on self-regulation by imposing proper mental workload to students (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundDesigning informatics curriculum for K-12 education: From Concepts to Implementations
Dagienė, V., Hromkovic̆, J., & Lacher, R. (2021) · Informatics in Education · doi:10.15388/infedu.2021.22 · Cited by 46
“We know that too restricted guidance does not work (Kirschner et al. , 2006), and there has to be find a good balance between guidance (interaction with teacher) and learner’s activity.”
BackgroundMethodFielding-Wells, J., & Makar, K. (2021) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-021-09564-3 · Cited by 23
Melguizo-Garín, A., Ruiz-Rodríguez, I., Peláez-Fernández, M. Á., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.811864 · Cited by 18
Avsec, S., & Savec, V. F. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14148626 · Cited by 27
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Wong, S. S. H. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09739-z · Cited by 20
“For instance, errors are observed when studying others’ incorrect solutions in worked examples or case studies (e.g., Adams et al., 2014; Barbieri and Booth, 2020; Booth et al., 2013; Durkin and Rittle-Johnson, 2012; Große and Renkl, 2007; Heemsoth and Heinze, 2014; Joung et al., 2006), whereas errors are passively al…”
BackgroundDessie, E., Gebeyehu, D., & Eshetu, F. (2023) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/13273 · Cited by 41
“The benefits of this synergistic approach have been well documented, with DIM reducing cognitive load by accommodating human cognitive limitations and ELM encouraging active knowledge building and multi-skill development (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundPeng, J., Sun, M., Yuan, B., Lim, C. P., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Wang, M. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11896-1 · Cited by 22
“Completing a real-world project requires not only subject knowledge, but more importantly higher-order thinking skills for solving complex problems (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006; Sasson et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018).”
The Evolved Mind and Modern Education
Geary, D. C. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009454858 · Cited by 19
The Master Integral Transform with Entire Kernels
Abu-Ghuwaleh, M., & Saffaf, R. (2025) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math13213431 · Cited by 23
My Journey With Inquiry-Based Learning
Gonzalez, J. J. (2013) · Journal on excellence in college teaching · Cited by 18
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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