The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Bernstein, D. A., Penner, L. A., Clarke-Stewart, A., Roy, E. J. & Wickens, C. D. (2003). Psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
- Roblyer M. D., 1996, Learning and Leading With Technology, 24, 12
- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 2,201–2,300 of 6,869
The Constructivist Principle of Learning by Being in Physics Teaching
Calalb, M. B. (2023) · Athens Journal of Education · doi:10.30958/aje.10-1-8 · Cited by 15
“In this way, the metacognition is equivalent to the didactical principle of consciousness of learning and closely relates to the assumption of learning objectives by the students (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
Geitz, G., Donker, A. S., & Parpala, A. (2023) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-023-09467-9 · Cited by 21
“However, today, it can be questioned whether these concepts still meet the requirements of society and educational institutions, as PBL, for example, has had varying results in terms of its effectiveness (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Jimmy Zambrano, R., Kirschner, F., Sweller, J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2023) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12603 · Cited by 21
Self-citationHermanto, I. M., Nurhayati, N., Tahir, I., et al. (2023) · JPF (Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika) Universitas Islam Negeri Alauddin Makassar · doi:10.24252/jpf.v11i1.36233 · Cited by 15
“Pernyataan ini juga didukung oleh Clark yang menyatakan bahwa struktur yang membentuk arsitektur kognitif manusia menunjukkan pentingnya menekankan bimbingan selama pembelajaran [21].”
BackgroundThe Role of Executive Function in Reading Development and Reading Intervention
Peng, P. (2023) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12375 · Cited by 20
Evans, P., & Martin, A. J. (2023) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2023.2290442 · Cited by 25
“LRI is theorised to impact on student learning, defined as a change in long-term memory (P. A. Kirschner et al., 2006), as indicated by measures of achievement (Martin & Evans, 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialZhang, S. K., & Scribner, L. L. (2024) · Journal of Marketing Education · doi:10.1177/02734753231223155 · Cited by 18
“Both methods allow students to tackle authentic, industry-related challenges and develop their solutions (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Núñez‐Regueiro, F. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09905-x · Cited by 19
“The risk, here, is for learning goals to become too opaque (vs. explicit) for low-achieving students with learning difficulties, thus increasing disparities in acquisitions between high and low achievers (alike minimally guided instruction; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BOPPPS model implementation and students' performance: a systematic literature review
Liu, J.-Y., Omar, S. Z., Wang, Y., & Xiang, Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1467225 · Cited by 16
Schülerlabore: Lernen durch Forschen und Entwickeln
Euler, M., Schüttler, T., & Hausamann, D. (2014) · Springer-Lehrbuch · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-41745-0_26 · Cited by 15
Gao, S. (2014) · Frontiers of Education in China · doi:10.3868/s110-003-014-0043-x · Cited by 25
Preschoolers Learning Science: Myth or Reality?
Kloos, H., Baker, H., Luken, E., et al. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/54119 · Cited by 15
Jarvis, J., Dickerson, C. M., Thomas, K., & Graham, S. (2014) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/ajte.2014v39n3.2 · Cited by 15
Roberts, T. V., Gustavs, J., & Mack, H. G. (2011) · Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2011.02716.x · Cited by 17
“Criticisms of PBL are that it is only effective when trainees have sufficient prior knowledge, and that they do not gain the underpinning scientific discipline base of the profession.(25) However, this is may be the result of poor implementation rather than a result of problems with the theoretical underpinnings of th…”
BackgroundAbrami, P. C. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.04.007 · Cited by 15
Tools for "contributing student learning"
Hamer, J., Purchase, H. C., Luxton-Reilly, A., et al. (2010) · doi:10.1145/1971681.1971683 · Cited by 15
Haupt, G. (2016) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-016-9381-0 · Cited by 16
A First Step Toward a Practice-Based Theory of Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Secondary Economics
Ayers, C. A. (2017) · The Journal of Social Studies Research · doi:10.1016/j.jssr.2017.01.003 · Cited by 15
Yuan, B., Wang, M., Kushniruk, A. W., & Peng, J. (2016) · Knowledge Management & E-Learning An International Journal · doi:10.34105/j.kmel.2016.08.034 · Cited by 15
Karışan, D., Tüzün, Ö. Y., & Zeidler, D. L. (2018) · Turkish Journal of Education · doi:10.19128/turje.7299116 · Cited by 18
Scheerens, J. (2017) · Educational Research and Evaluation · doi:10.1080/13803611.2017.1455286 · Cited by 15
“A striking example are studies that find no significant differences between structured teaching strategies and constructivist strategies (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Louis, Dretzke, & Wahlstrom, 2010).”
BackgroundSinambela, J. H., Napitupulu, E. E., Mulyono, M., et al. (2018) · American Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12691/education-6-12-13 · Cited by 15
“Bruner (Kirschner) [8] recommending minimal guidance was understandable when Bruner proposed discovery learning as an instructional tool because the structures and relations that constitute human cognitive architecture had not yet been mapped.”
BackgroundAutomated Feedback Can Improve Hypothesis Quality
Kroeze, K. A., van den Berg, S. M., Lazonder, A. W., Veldkamp, B. P., & de Jong, T. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2018.00116 · Cited by 15
“These natural tendencies demonstrate that unguided inquiry learning is likely to be ineffective (Mayer, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006; de Jong and Lazonder, 2014).”
BackgroundThe Long-Term Benefit of Video Modeling Examples for Guided Inquiry
Kaiser, I., & Mayer, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00104 · Cited by 18
Use of Meta-Analysis to Uncover the Critical Issues of Mobile Inquiry-Based Learning
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“…and research syntheses (e.g., Edelson, Gordin, & Pea, 1999; Furtak, Seidel, Iverson, & Briggs, 2009, 2012; Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn, 2007; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016; Minner, Levy, & Century, 2010; Spronken-Smith & Walker, 2010; Wang et al., 2011) have…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialUsing Inquiry-Based Learning to Enhance Immunology Laboratory Skills
Demaria, M. C., Barry, A., & Murphy, K. (2019) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02510 · Cited by 15
Euler, E., Gregorcic, B., & Linder, C. (2020) · European Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6404/ab895c · Cited by 15
“…during exploratory activities so as to prevent them from ‘creating situations which are unnecessarily complicatedor distracting’ (Podolefsky et al 2010, p 10; see also the related discussion on the necessity of imposed structures during learning in Kirschner et al 2006, Sweller et al 2007).”
BackgroundExploring Programmers' API Learning Processes: Collecting Web Resources as External Memory
Gao, G., Voichick, F., Ichinco, M., & Kelleher, C. L. (2020) · IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC) · doi:10.1109/vl/hcc50065.2020.9127274 · Cited by 17
“Extraneous load is commonly caused by inefficiencies in the instructional process or materials, like unnecessary information searches [49] or needing to integrate information [47], [50].”
BackgroundGuiding Preschool Play for Cultural Learning: Preschool Design as Cultural Niche Construction
Samuelsson, R. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.545846 · Cited by 23
Inferring Student Engagement in Collaborative Problem Solving from Visual Cues
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“However, positive outcomes of CPS is highly correlated with students’ engagement with the CPS activities and students should be appropriately guided in their interactions to achieve the expected learning outcomes [4, 13].”
BackgroundCrossing Disciplinary Boundaries to Improve Technology-Rich Learning Environments
Lajoie, S. P., & Poitras, E. (2017) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811711900301 · Cited by 15
A Machine Learning Approach for Suggesting Feedback in Textual Exercises in Large Courses
Bernius, J. P., Krusche, S., & Bruegge, B. (2021) · ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale (L@S) · doi:10.1145/3430895.3460135 · Cited by 14
“Students need guidance in the form of feedback in their learning activities to prevent misconceptions [13].”
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Breed, C., & Mehrtens, H. (2021) · Land · doi:10.3390/land11010045 · Cited by 15
“Live projects can also hinder problem-solving abilities if insufficient guidance is given to participants [43], while the project and outcomes are harder to control and predict, entailing greater risks for educators [30].”
BackgroundCushion, C. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.796765 · Cited by 20
“Drawing on evidence informed learning principles (e.g., Mayer, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006; Cushion 2013), meaningful learning occurs when officers are connected to, and make sense of, what is to be learned, identify relevant knowledge and information, and organize it into a coherent structure…”
BackgroundÁlvarez, R. H., Miranda, G., León, C., & Segredo, E. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computing · doi:10.1109/tetc.2022.3163650 · Cited by 17
“We decided to follow these two methodologies since theories like constructivism, discovery and guidance have been studied by many experts, creating a debate around which is most effective, from a cognitive point of view [35], and for Computer Science, the studies offer no clear conclusion [36].”
MethodHolm, L. B., Rognes, A., & Dahl, F. A. (2022) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2022.100197 · Cited by 21
Examining the Efficacy of Inquiry-based Approaches to Education
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“There is considerable empirical evidence that discovery learning has limited educational value when compared to direct instruction where the concepts and procedures students are expected to learn are fully laid out and explained to them (Barron et al., 1998; DarlingHammond, 2008; Hattie, 2009; Kirschner et al., 2006;…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Worked Example and Problem Completion Effects
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_8 · Cited by 17
Self-citationFlipped Classroom as a Strategy to Enhance Active Learning
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Evaluation Of Student Engagement With Peer Feedback Based On Student-Generated MCQs
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Joyner, D. A., & Goel, A. K. (2015) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI) · doi:10.1145/2678025.2701398 · Cited by 15
“Kirchner, Sweller, & Clark argue, from both theoretical and empirical viewpoints, that purely unguided or minimally-guided instructional approaches are insufficient [27].”
BackgroundFinding the optimal guidance for enhancing anchored instruction
Zydney, J. M., Bathke, A. C., & Hasselbring, T. S. (2012) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2012.745436 · Cited by 15
“because it places a high demand on working memory load (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
BackgroundBerghmans, I., Michiels, L., Salmon, S., Dochy, F. J. R. C., & Struyven, K. (2014) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-014-9168-8 · Cited by 15
Tecnologie per apprendere: quale il ruolo dell’Evidence Based Education?
Calvani, A., & Vivanet, G. (2014) · Journal of Educational Cultural and Psychological Studies (ECPS Journal) · doi:10.7358/ecps-2014-010-calv · Cited by 17
The Tayside insulin management course: an effective education programme in type 1 diabetes
Jordan, L. V. M., Robertson, M., Grant, L. M., Peters, R. E. L., Cameron, J. T., Chisholm, S., Voigt, D., Matheson, L., Kerr, E. J., MacLean, K. G., et al. (2013) · International Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/ijcp.12107 · Cited by 15
Teaching for Change: Learning Partnerships and Epistemological Growth
Olsen, D., Bekken, B. M., McConnell, K. D., & Walter, C. T. (2011) · The Journal of General Education · doi:10.1353/jge.2011.0017 · Cited by 15
Determination of Teacher Characteristics which Support Constructivist Learning Environments
Aydoğdu, B., & Ay, T. S. (2016) · Eurasian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.14689/ejer.2016.63.17 · Cited by 15
Adaptive Augmented Reality Serious Game to Foster Problem Solving Skills
Rania, H., Fleenor, H., & Syedali, N. (2014) · Ambient intelligence and smart environments · doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-411-4-273 · Cited by 16
“One of the most straight forward effects of increased practice is that tasks are performed more quickly and more accurately [27].”
BackgroundStudents’ Perceived Constructivist Learning Environment
Alt, D. (2016) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000358 · Cited by 20
A meaningful discovery learning environment for e-book learners
Wang, J., Ogata, H., & Shimada, A. (2017) · IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) · doi:10.1109/educon.2017.7942995 · Cited by 15
“Timely guidance is needed in discover learning for learners to avoid confusing or frustrating [16].”
BackgroundMAPILS: Mobile augmented reality plant inquiry learning system
Umer, M., Nasir, B., Khan, J. A., Ali, S., & Ahmed, S. (2017) · IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) · doi:10.1109/educon.2017.7943038 · Cited by 16
Phogo: A low cost, free and “maker” revisit to Logo
Molins-Ruano, P., González-Sacristán, C., & García-Saura, C. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.09.029 · Cited by 15
Instructional designers guided by external representations in a design process
Baaki, J., & Luo, T. (2019) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-018-09493-2 · Cited by 16
Computing for Other Disciplines
Guzdial, M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.020 · Cited by 20
Engineering Education Research
Loui, M. C., & Borrego, M. J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.012 · Cited by 17
Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) as a Driver of Curriculum: A Staged Approach
Aparicio-Ting, F. E., Slater, D. M., & Kurz, E. U. (2019) · Papers on postsecondary learning and teaching. · doi:10.55016/ojs/pplt.v3y2019.53136 · Cited by 15
“…as strictly unstructured and unguided learning activities has been found to be limiting in practice, detrimental to novice student learning and a barrier for IBL implementation by teaching faculty (Brown, Abell, Demir, & Schmidt, 2006; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
SaveWise: The design of a financial education program in the Netherlands
Amagir, A., Groot, W. N. J., van den Brink, H. M., & Wilschut, A. (2019) · Citizenship Social and Economics Education · doi:10.1177/2047173419870053 · Cited by 15
“Kirschner et al. (2006) suggest that unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are less effective and efficient for novices than guided instructional approaches.”
BackgroundSTEM from the perspectives of engineering design and suggested tools and learning design
Ting, Y.-L. (2016) · Journal of Research in STEM Education · doi:10.51355/jstem.2016.22 · Cited by 15
“…task of engineering design is to tackle one general concern about hands-on activities, in which students do not learn the underlying science concepts through these activities, or the knowledge to be learned can be delivered through direct instruction (Apedoe et al., 2008; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundEducation Quality and Teaching Practices
Bassi, M., Meghir, C., & Reynoso, A. (2020) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1093/ej/ueaa022 · Cited by 17
Eighth Grade Students’ Misconceptions and Errors in Mathematics Learning in Nepal
Kshetree, M. P., Acharya, B. R., Khanal, B. P., et al. (2021) · European Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12973/eu-jer.10.3.1101 · Cited by 15
Anstey, L. M., Michels, A., Szymus, J., et al. (2013) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1383 · Cited by 15
“Despite these positive findings, IBL has been challenged as a form of minimally guided teaching that fails to provide the necessary structure, guidance, and explicit information necessary for effective cognitive functioning important in learning (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundRevitalizing problem based learning: student and tutor attitudes towards a structured tutorial
Espey, E. L., Ogburn, T., Kalishman, S. G., Zsemlye, M. M., & Cosgrove, E. (2007) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/01421590701316522 · Cited by 15
“A recently published review forcefully condemns ‘‘minimally guided instruction’’ on the basis that current understanding of cognition does not support the superiority of problem-based or discovery learning over more guided instruction (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundTeachers’ perceptions of the coaching role in secondary vocational education
Ketelaar, E., den Brok, P., Beijaard, D., et al. (2012) · Journal of Vocational Education and Training · doi:10.1080/13636820.2012.691534 · Cited by 15
Keith, N., & Wolff, C. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118736982.ch6 · Cited by 16
Students’ Conceptions of Constructivist Learning
Loyens, S. M. M. (2007) · RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 17
The concept of working memory: introduction to the Special Issue
Reid, N. (2009) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635140902853608 · Cited by 15
“Constructivism emerged as a good way to describe what was going on but, as Kirschner et al. (2006) have demonstrated, constructivism, along with numerous other strategies, cannot offer a clear way forward unless it takes into account the key effect of limited working memory capacity.”
BackgroundEducation Quality and Teaching Practices
Bassi, M., Meghir, C., & Reynoso, A. (2016) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w22719 · Cited by 15
The Double-edged Sword of Pedagogy: Instruction limits spontaneous exploration and discoveryPreprint
Bonawitz, E. B., Shafto, P., Hyowon Gweon, C., Goodman, N. D., Spelke, E. S., & Schulz, L. (2018) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/rts2w · Cited by 12
Wirth, J., Weber-Reuter, X.-L., Schuster, C., Fleischer, J., Leutner, D., & Stebner, F. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09983-x · Cited by 23
“Kirschner et al. (2006) point out that this additional metacognitive load might even decrease learning performance when learners need to regulate their learning themselves.”
Mathematics in Teams—Developing Thinking Skills in Mathematics Education
Wijers, M., & de Haan, D. (2020) · ICME-13 monographs · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-33824-4_2 · Cited by 14
Problem-Based Learning and Computer-Based Scaffolds in Online Learning
Moallem, M., & Igoe, E. (2020) · Cognition and exploratory learning in the digital age · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-48190-2_8 · Cited by 14
Continuing professional development for veterinarians in a changing world
Daborn, C. J., Wieland, B., Debnath, N., et al. (2021) · Scientific and Technical Review (World Organisation for Animal Health) · doi:10.20506/rst.40.2.3245 · Cited by 14
Die web-basierte Bürosimulation LUCA – Funktionen, Einsatzmöglichkeiten und Forschungsausblick
Rausch, A., Deutscher, V. K., Seifried, J., Brandt, S., & Winther, E. (2021) · Zeitschrift für Berufs- und Wirtschaftspädagogik · doi:10.25162/zbw-2021-0017 · Cited by 24
Research on the Implications of Constructivism to Education
Wang, Y. (2022) · Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research/Advances in social science, education and humanities research · doi:10.2991/assehr.k.220504.507 · Cited by 15
Connecting curricula and competence through student learning journeys
Birdman, J., Barth, M., & Lang, D. J. (2022) · Sustainability Science Practice and Policy · doi:10.1080/15487733.2022.2097773 · Cited by 15
“Still, the expectation of student success without instructional content support has drawn legitimate critique (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundTaştan, H., & Tong, T. (2023) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22631 · Cited by 15
“These theories offer unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches that obstruct learners' natural processes by drawing on their unique prior experiences and learning styles to construct new situated knowledge that will achieve their goals [63].”
BackgroundPrior math achievement and inventive production predict learning from productive failure
Kapur, M., Saba, J., & Roll, I. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00165-y · Cited by 20
Kadir, M. S., Yeung, A. S., Caleon, I. S., Diallo, T., Forbes, A., & Koh, W. X. (2023) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4077 · Cited by 24
“Although inquiry-based learning encourages self-discovery and knowledge transfer through the independent exploration of ill-defined problems, it is assumed to impose a high cognitive load to the learners (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Why the time is ripe for an education revolution
Lillard, A. S. (2023) · Frontiers in Developmental Psychology · doi:10.3389/fdpys.2023.1177576 · Cited by 15
Lawter, L., & Garnjost, P. (2023) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100849 · Cited by 16
Lui, M., Chong, K.-Y. A., Mullally, M., & McEwen, R. N. (2023) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-023-09396-y · Cited by 16
“Consistent with the body of work on computer-based exploratory learning environments and virtual labs, proper guidance was seen as an essential factor in the learners’ success (D’Angelo et al., 2014; de Jong et al., 2013; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007a; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundXue, Z. (2023) · International Journal of Education and Humanities · doi:10.54097/ijeh.v9i3.10506 · Cited by 15
Ranken, E., Wyse, D., Manyukhina, Y., & Bradbury, A. (2024) · The Curriculum Journal · doi:10.1002/curj.304 · Cited by 40
Compounding Confusion? When Illustrative Practical Work Falls Short of its Purpose—A Case Study
Haigh, M. A., France, B., & Gounder, R. (2011) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-011-9226-5 · Cited by 14
Rotgans, J. I., O’Grady, G., & Alwis, W. A. M. (2011) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-011-9299-y · Cited by 16
“The question on how much guidance is needed in PBL caused quite some debate in the PBL literature (Hmelo-Silver, et al. 2007; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundBuilding CS Research Capacity in sub-Saharan Africa by Implementing a Doctoral Training Program
Apiola, M., Suhonen, J. T., Nangawe, A. G., et al. (2015) · ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE) · doi:10.1145/2676723.2677242 · Cited by 14
Sadat, S., & Khan, T. M. (2011) · Brunel University Research Archive (BURA) (Brunel University London) · Cited by 14
Students’ goal orientations and learning strategies in a powerful learning environment: A case study
Koopman, M., Bakx, A. W. E. A., & Beijaard, D. (2014) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2014.07.003 · Cited by 19
“In that case, the teachers in the investigated LE provide exactly the type guidance the students need (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Metonymy and reference-point errors in novice programming
Miller, C. S. (2014) · Computer Science Education · doi:10.1080/08993408.2014.952500 · Cited by 14
“Extensive studies across a broad range of technical disciplines demonstrate advantages to presenting worked examples (see Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 for a review).”
BackgroundRECENT EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING: A META-ANALYSIS AND REVIEW
Furtak, E. M. (2009) · Cited by 14
The Oil Game: Generating Enthusiasm for Geosciences in Urban Youth in Newark, NJ
Gates, A. E., & Kalczynski, M. J. (2016) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.5408/10-164.1 · Cited by 14
“The guided nature of the game, in that all solutions, or oil discoveries, were restricted by the format of the game and the data provided, is essential to successful application to PBL at this level (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundDesign and Use of Static Scaffolding Techniques to Support Java Programming on a Mobile Phone
Mbogo, C., Blake, E., & Suleman, H. (2016) · ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education (ITiCSE) · doi:10.1145/2899415.2899456 · Cited by 14
“One of the main criticisms of the constructivist approach is that learners are expected to construct new knowledge with minimal guidance [12].”
BackgroundScaffolding Discovery Learning In 3D Virtual Environments
Lee, M. J. W., & Dalgarno, B. (2010) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-61692-825-4.ch008 · Cited by 14
Goetz, C. (2017) · The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child · doi:10.1080/00797308.2016.1277879 · Cited by 14
Castillo, R. D., Waltzer, T., & Kloos, H. (2017) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-017-0061-8 · Cited by 17
Apprenticing for creativity in the improvisation lesson: a qualitative enquiry
de Bruin, L. R. (2017) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2017.1359157 · Cited by 17
“…‘provide emotional support… such as developing, encouraging, and maturing their protégés’ self-esteem and self-motivation’ (Erdem and Aytemur 2008, 56) and shape student strategies, practices and ‘structures that constitute a human cognitive architecture’ (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006, 76).”
BackgroundLaporte, L., & Zaman, B. (2017) · Entertainment Computing · doi:10.1016/j.entcom.2017.12.005 · Cited by 15
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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