The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
Cites
(1983) · Cited by 33,192
Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching
SHULMAN, L. S. (1986) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x015002004 · Cited by 18,546
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1956) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0043158 · Cited by 17,812
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.343 · Cited by 17,563
DEWEY, J. M. (1986) · The Educational Forum · doi:10.1080/00131728609335764 · Cited by 13,872
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Self-citation(1980) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,534
Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3 · Cited by 7,216
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779
The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory
(2010) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/c2009-0-62209-1 · Cited by 6,035
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Ausubel D. P., 1964, The Arithmetic Teacher, 11, 290
- Bernstein, D. A., Penner, L. A., Clarke-Stewart, A., Roy, E. J. & Wickens, C. D. (2003). Psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
- Clark R. E., 1998, Educational Technology, 38, 5
- Estes F., 1999, Educational Technology, 37, 5
- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
- Roblyer M. D., 1996, Learning and Leading With Technology, 24, 12
- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 2,101–2,200 of 6,869
Vink, S., van Tartwijk, J., Verloop, N., Gosselink, M., Driessen, E. W., & Bolk, J. H. (2015) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-015-9657-2 · Cited by 17
“It is then unlikely that learning will take place (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundUrbanSim: A Game-based Simulation for Counterinsurgency and Stability-focused Operations
McAlinden, R., Gordon, A. S., Lane, H. C., et al. (2009) · Cited by 17
Improving Higher Education Students’ Learning Proficiency by Fostering their Self-regulation Skills
Corte, E. D. (2016) · European Review · doi:10.1017/s1062798715000617 · Cited by 17
Ma, Y., & Williams, D. (2013) · Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange · doi:10.18785/jetde.0602.02 · Cited by 17
“The finding is consistent with an analysis of education research in the past half-century that shows minimally guided instructions fail to help children achieve expected learning outcomes (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
An explicit-inductive approach to grammar in Irish-medium immersion schools
Dhiorbháin, A. N., & Duibhir, P. Ó. (2016) · Language Awareness · doi:10.1080/09658416.2016.1261870 · Cited by 17
Kumschick, I. R., Piwowar, V., Ophardt, D., Barth, V. L., Krysmanski, K., & Thiel, F. (2017) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-017-0728-4 · Cited by 18
Crosslin, M., Dellinger, J. T., Joksimovíc, S., Kovanović, V., & Gašević, D. (2018) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v22i1.1080 · Cited by 17
Hrin, T. N., Rodić, D. D., & Segedinac, M. (2017) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c7rp00162b · Cited by 18
Mikeska, J. N., Shattuck, T., Holtzman, S. L., McCaffrey, D. F., Duchesneau, N., Qi, Y., & Stickler, L. M. (2017) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2017.1390796 · Cited by 23
Kirginas, S., & Gouscos, D. (2017) · International Journal of Serious Games · doi:10.17083/ijsg.v4i4.175 · Cited by 17
“[35], unguided discovery is more often than not inefficient due to the structures that constitute the human cognitive architecture.”
BackgroundApostolellis, P., Bowman, D. A., & Chmiel, M. (2018) · Springer series on cultural computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58550-5_2 · Cited by 18
Teaching primary mathematics with challenging tasks: How should lessons be structured?
Russo, J., & Hopkins, S. (2018) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2018.1440369 · Cited by 21
“This is suggested to be either a product of an unnecessary level of extraneous cognitive load associated with minimally guided approaches due to poor instructional design (Kirschner et al., 2006), or inappropriately high levels of intrinsic cognitive load, due to the unrealistically ambitious nature of the learning ob…”
BackgroundInfluentialA Problem for Cognitive Load Theory—the Distinctively Human Life‐form
Derry, J. (2020) · Journal of Philosophy of Education · doi:10.1111/1467-9752.12411 · Cited by 19
Tiered Scaffolding of Problem-Based Learning Techniques in a Thermodynamics Course
Lape, N. K. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--18365 · Cited by 17
Resistance to Change: Unconscious Knowledge and the Challenge of Unlearning
Clark, R. E. (2014) · doi:10.4324/9780203868546-10 · Cited by 17
Self-citationA qualitative examination of how accountability manifests itself in a circular economy
Kwarteng, A., Agyenim-Boateng, C., & Simpson, S. N. Y. (2023) · Journal of Global Responsibility · doi:10.1108/jgr-12-2021-0107 · Cited by 17
Lahza, H. F., Demartini, G., Noroozi, O., Gašević, D., Sadiq, S., & Khosravi, H. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105260 · Cited by 16
Segal, R., Stupel, M., Sigler, A. B., et al. (2018) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2018.1452302 · Cited by 16
Using Quantum Games To Teach Quantum Mechanics, Part 2
Hoehn, R. D., Mack, N., & Kais, S. (2014) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/ed400432y · Cited by 16
Sécheresse, T., Lima, L., & Pansu, P. (2020) · Nurse Education in Practice · doi:10.1016/j.nepr.2020.102914 · Cited by 16
Soysal, Y., & Soysal, S. (2022) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440221102433 · Cited by 18
“In terms of the cognitive load theory, in-class science inquiry activities incorporate higher cognitive demands of problemsolving procedures; therefore, students often experience exhausting loads of cognitive work (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundTeaching Statistics to Struggling Students: Lessons Learned from Students with LD, ADHD, and Autism
Dahlstrom-Hakki, I. H., & Wallace, M. L. (2022) · Journal of Statistics and Data Science Education · doi:10.1080/26939169.2022.2082601 · Cited by 21
Van, T. L., & Tien, H. H. (2021) · VNU Journal of Foreign Studies · doi:10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4642 · Cited by 16
Liu, Z., & Jeong, A. C. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10145-5 · Cited by 20
“…inhibits students’ ability to manage cognitive resources to effectively engage in strategic and deliberate problem-solving that give students cause to attend more closely to and more effectively distill the underlying knowledge and skills to be used in the game (Kirschner et al., 2006; Paas, 1992).”
BackgroundSTEM Education in Australia: Impediments and Solutions in Achieving a STEM-Ready Workforce
Bentley, B., Sieben, R., & Unsworth, P. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12100730 · Cited by 16
The Doer Effect at Scale: Investigating Correlation and Causation Across Seven Courses
Campenhout, R. V., Jerome, B., Dittel, J., & Johnson, B. G. (2023) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3576050.3576103 · Cited by 16
“Immediate elaborative feedback has been shown to reduce the time to reach outcomes [1, 12], provide scaffolding and support cognitive structures for learning [8, 14, 17], and outperform practice with no feedback [6, 14].”
BackgroundDevelopment of a virtual microscope with integrated feedback for blended geology labs
Engel, K., Davidson, J., Jolley, A., Kennedy, B. M., & Nichols, A. R. L. (2023) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.1080/10899995.2023.2202285 · Cited by 18
“This agrees well with cognitive load theory, which states that explicit models of instruction are needed to minimize cognitive load as this breaks down the information into more manageable chunks (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
(Re)conceptualizing movement behavior in sport as a problem-solving activity
Myszka, S., Yearby, T., & Davids, K. (2023) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2023.1130131 · Cited by 16
“However, when investigating the (re)organization of movement solutions in skill adaptation (9), especially in the challenging athletic contexts of sport performance, the problemsolving process and the movement outcome as a solution, may differ from other domains.”
BackgroundFoster, C. F. (2023) · The Curriculum Journal · doi:10.1002/curj.213 · Cited by 17
The entrepreneurial mindset in entrepreneurship education: what can we learn from S-O-R models?
Larsen, I. B., Blenker, P., & Neergaard, H. (2023) · Education + Training · doi:10.1108/et-09-2022-0364 · Cited by 27
Enhancing Blended Courses to Facilitate Student Achievement of Learning Outcomes
Lau, N.-S., Lam, L., & Zhou, B. (2010) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14657-2_19 · Cited by 16
“The guidance was minimized as students gained expertise in web navigation [ 24 ], offering them more opportunities to explore a diversity of websites and extract meaningful information.”
BackgroundUtilizing Dynamic Bayes Nets to Improve Early Prediction Models of Self-regulated Learning
Sabourin, J. L., Mott, B., & Lester, J. C. (2013) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-38844-6_19 · Cited by 17
“This ranking is motivated by the observation that setting and reflecting upon goals is strongly associated with selfregulatory behavior and that specific goals are more beneficial than those that are more general [9].”
BackgroundThe contribution of open ended group projects to international student collaborations
Daniels, M. (2010) · ACM Inroads · doi:10.1145/1835428.1835446 · Cited by 16
“There are researchers that claim that minimal guidance approaches, such as pure OEGP and ill-structured problem solving approaches [10, 31, 19], lead to confusion and low levels of learning in terms of changes in long term memory [21, 33].”
BackgroundMansour, M., Martin, A. J., Anderson, M. R., Gibson, R., Liem, G. A. D., & Sudmalis, D. (2016) · The Australian Educational Researcher · doi:10.1007/s13384-015-0199-7 · Cited by 24
Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2010) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 16
Learning and Teaching in the Early Years
Page, J., & Tayler, C. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107426023 · Cited by 16
Analysis of the possibilities of using EEG in assessing pilots’ psychophysical condition
Galant, M., & Merkisz, J. (2017) · Scientific Journal of Silesian University of Technology Series Transport · doi:10.20858/sjsutst.2017.95.4 · Cited by 16
“A heavy cognitive load typically causes errors or some kind of interference in the task being conducted [11].”
BackgroundIs problem-based learning suitable for engineering?
Radcliffe, P., & Kumar, D. (2016) · Australasian journal of engineering education · doi:10.1080/22054952.2017.1351131 · Cited by 16
“Kirschner et al. (2006) were scathing of PBL and concluded ‘After a half-century of advocacy associated with instruction using minimal guidance, it appears that there is no body of research supporting the technique’.”
BackgroundMachine and Human Observable Differences in Groups’ Collaborative Problem-Solving Behaviours
Cukurova, M., Luckin, R., Mavrikis, M., et al. (2017) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-66610-5_2 · Cited by 16
“However, existing evidence on the effective- ness of these methods to satisfy common learning outcomes is rare [2, 3].”
BackgroundZhang, W. (2017) · Frontiers of Education in China · doi:10.1007/s11516-017-0019-0 · Cited by 19
Shim, J. M., & Shur, A. M. (2017) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v11n1p21 · Cited by 16
Content teaching: innovative and traditional practices
Heaysman, O., & Tubin, D. (2018) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2018.1446334 · Cited by 19
“Like others (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006), we have found that direct teaching, such as explanation, is needed in a lesson in order to add information, enrich the topic and suggest meaning to the discussion.”
BackgroundCattáneo, A., van der Meij, H., & Sauli, F. (2018) · Computers in the Schools · doi:10.1080/07380569.2018.1531597 · Cited by 18
“The scenario reflected the kind of direct instructional guidance favored by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundPikoli, M. (2020) · doi:10.15294/ijal.v5i1.22767 · Cited by 16
“guidance, there is also the possibility to give effect to such students acquire knowledge is incomplete, causing misconceptions (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMillanzi, W. C., & Kibusi, S. M. (2021) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-020-00509-8 · Cited by 17
“, (25), who did a study on critical thinking and self-directed learning as an outcome of facilitation in a problem-based environment among nursing students.”
BackgroundWekerle, C., & Kollar, I. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106617 · Cited by 17
“Still, in order to use the potentials of learning with authentic cases, further instructional guidance is needed (Kirschner et al., 2006) that fosters the content and form quality of pre-service teachers’ TPACK-PV.”
BackgroundChytrý, V., Medová, J., Říčan, J., & Škoda, J. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su122310215 · Cited by 16
“[16] address the question of which types of educational practices are likely to support knowledge construction in terms of constructivist approaches.”
BackgroundJatisunda, M. G., Suciawati, V., & Nahdi, D. S. (2020) · Al-Jabar Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika · doi:10.24042/ajpm.v11i2.6903 · Cited by 16
“The mathematical task will be significant when students are experienced enough to solve problems (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundEstrategias de aprendizaje profundas: Validación de un modelo situacional y su cuestionario
Panadero, E., Alonso‐Tapia, J., García-Pérez, D., Fraile, J., Galán, J. M. S., & Pardo, R. (2021) · Revista de Psicodidáctica · doi:10.1016/j.psicod.2020.11.003 · Cited by 16
Lau, K. W., & Lee, P. Y. (2021) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-021-00504-7 · Cited by 18
Soysal, Y. (2021) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2021.1908981 · Cited by 16
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) have indicated that students’ cognitive load increases when their ill-structured mental models (i.e. invalid/incomplete schemes) are coupled with the additional demands of inquiry practices.”
BackgroundTechnologies for Professional Learning
Littlejohn, A. H., & Pammer‐Schindler, V. (2022) · Professional and practice-based learning · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89582-2_15 · Cited by 18
Aprendizaje, enseñanza, conocimiento, tres acepciones del constructivismo
Rizo, F. M. (2021) · Perfiles Educativos · doi:10.22201/iisue.24486167e.2021.174.60208 · Cited by 16
Zhang, J., Zhou, Y., & Li, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19127472 · Cited by 16
“Due to its forwardlooking interpretation of human learning in the future, it has rapidly gained universal attention from the international community and become the highland and forefront of learning theory research [14].”
BackgroundAkaygün, S., & Jones, L. L. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4366-3_13 · Cited by 17
How to Personalize Learning in K-12 Schools: Five Essential Design Features.
Lee, D. (2014) · Educational Technology archive · Cited by 16
Shemwell, J. T., Avargil, S., & Capps, D. K. (2015) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21239 · Cited by 12
Instruction Matters for Nature of Science Understanding in College Biology Laboratories
Schussler, E. E., Bautista, N. U., Link‐Pérez, M. A., et al. (2013) · BioScience · doi:10.1525/bio.2013.63.5.11 · Cited by 16
Peters, M. (2015) · Teaching Mathematics and its Applications An International Journal of the IMA · doi:10.1093/teamat/hru031 · Cited by 16
Increasing Adult Learner Motivation for Completing Self-Directed E-Learning
Jones, A. R. (2013) · Performance Improvement Journal · doi:10.1002/pfi.21361 · Cited by 24
Comparing team learning approaches through the lens of activity theory
Park, S., Cho, Y., Yoon, S. W., & Han, H. (2013) · European journal of training and development · doi:10.1108/ejtd-04-2013-0048 · Cited by 17
Mental load: helping clinical learners
White, G. (2011) · The Clinical Teacher · doi:10.1111/j.1743-498x.2011.00458.x · Cited by 16
“Kirschner, Sweller and Clark identify three forms of cognitive load: intrinsic, relevant and extraneous.(3) The intrinsic load is determined by both the complexity of the content or skill being learned and the learner’s expertise.”
Using Alignment and Reflection to Improve Student Learning
Boyle, A. (2007) · Elements · doi:10.2113/gselements.3.2.113 · Cited by 18
“In recent publications on guided versus constructivist approaches (e.g. Jervis and Jervis 2005; Kirschner et al. 2006), it has been suggested that the advantage of guided over unguided problem-based approaches begins to diminish only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide…”
BackgroundA collaborative and experiential learning model powered by real-world projects
Sabin, M. (2008) · Conference on Information Technology Education · doi:10.1145/1414558.1414600 · Cited by 16
“Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page.”
BackgroundThe Career Beliefs of Inner-City Adolescents
Turner, S. L., & Conkel, J. L. (2011) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.5330/psc.n.2011-15.1 · Cited by 17
Comparison of Example-based Learning and Problem-based Learning in Engineering Domain
Sern, L. C., Salleh, K. M., Sulaiman, N. L., Mohamad, M. M., & Yunos, J. M. (2015) · Universal Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.13189/ujer.2015.030106 · Cited by 16
“Such strategy induces high cognitive load because processing too many interacting elements imposes a high demands on a novice’s cognitive system [6].”
BackgroundPurposeful Instruction: Mixing Up The “I,” “We,” and “You”
Grant, M. C., Lapp, D., Fisher, D., et al. (2012) · Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy · doi:10.1002/jaal.00101 · Cited by 16
Gamification for Astronaut Training
Cornelissen, F. (2012) · SpaceOps Conference (SpaceOps) · doi:10.2514/6.2012-1275405 · Cited by 16
“Do we need to memorize that?” or cognitive science for chemists
Hartman, J. R., & Nelson, E. A. (2015) · Foundations of Chemistry · doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9226-z · Cited by 19
Shipton, B. (2009) · Journal of Learning Design · doi:10.5204/jld.v3i1.55 · Cited by 16
“This is contrasted to a guided learning environment where learning is scaffolded through various methods to support the learner‟s working memory (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialSimulation tools for active learning in robot control and programming
Nicolás, G. L., Romeo, A., & Guerrero, J. J. (2009) · EAEEIE Annual Conference (EAEEIE) · doi:10.1109/eaeeie.2009.5335490 · Cited by 16
“In general, it should be noted that instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process [ 17 ].”
BackgroundPlace-Based Mathematics Education: A Conflated Pedagogy?
Showalter, D. (2013) · Pennsylvania Libraries: Research & Practice (University of Pittsburgh) · doi:10.18113/p8jrre2806 · Cited by 16
An active, collaborative approach to learning skills in flow cytometry
Fuller, K. A., Linden, M. D., Lee‐Pullen, T. F., Fragall, C. T., Erber, W. N., & Röhrig, K. J. (2016) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00002.2015 · Cited by 18
“Some authors have cautioned against giving too little instruction (14), and previous studies have shown that students can feel more anxious and stressed when active or inquiry-based methods are used (16, 25).”
BackgroundConstructivist Design for Interactive Machine Learning
Sarkar, A. (2016) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/2851581.2892547 · Cited by 20
“Many current IML systems are indubitably products of similar underlying processes; however, the thick description which typically evidences such a process is conspicuously lacking from our current literature.”
BackgroundThe relationship between metacognitive awareness and online information searching strategies
Yılmaz, F. G. K. (2016) · Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction · doi:10.14527/pegegog.2016.022 · Cited by 19
The Impact of STEM Experiences on Student Self-Efficacy in Computational Thinking
Weese, J. L., Feldhausen, R., & Bean, N. H. (2016) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/p.26179 · Cited by 17
Terénní výuka ve formálním vzdělávání
Činčera, J., & Holec, J. (2016) · Envigogika · doi:10.14712/18023061.533 · Cited by 16
An Immodest Proposal: Pedagogic Information Supports for Teachers
Rothkopf, E. Z. (2009) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146810911100101 · Cited by 16
Exploring instructional differences and school performance in high-poverty elementary schools
Hirn, R. G., Hollo, A., & Scott, T. M. (2017) · Preventing School Failure Alternative Education for Children and Youth · doi:10.1080/1045988x.2017.1329197 · Cited by 17
Arba, M., Falisse, A., Choukr‐Allah, R., et al. (2017) · Fruits · doi:10.17660/th2017/72.4.3 · Cited by 16
Technological and organizational capital: Where complementarities exist
Stucki, T., & Wochner, D. S. (2018) · Journal of Economics & Management Strategy · doi:10.1111/jems.12269 · Cited by 16
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) posit that “evidence from empirical studies over the past half‐century […] consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the […] learning…”
Teaching communication skills with technology: Creating a virtual patient for medical students
Sezer, B., & Sezer, T. A. (2019) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.4957 · Cited by 15
Extreme Apprenticeship Method in Teaching University-Level Mathematics
Hautala, T., Romu, T., Rämö, J., et al. (2012) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 16
Fachdidaktisches Wissen von angehenden Sportlehrkräften messen
Heemsoth, T., & Wibowo, J. (2020) · German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research · doi:10.1007/s12662-020-00643-0 · Cited by 21
Berta, R., Bellotti, F., van der Spek, E. D., & Winkler, T. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-4560-50-4_32 · Cited by 17
Besser, M., Blum, W. F., & Klimczak, M. (2013) · International perspectives on the teaching and learning of mathematical modelling · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6540-5_40 · Cited by 16
Peariso, J. F. (2011) · ProQuest LLC eBooks · Cited by 16
Public versus private education in primary science: The case of Abu Dhabi schools
McKinnon, M., Barza, L., & Moussa‐Inaty, J. (2013) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2013.06.007 · Cited by 19
Merrill, M. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8299-3_13 · Cited by 16
“... guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, … these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and le…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialModel-Based Learning and Performance
Seel, N. M. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_37 · Cited by 17
A study of learning mathematics related to some cognitive factors and to attitudes
Alenezi, D. (2008) · Enlighten: Theses (The University of Glasgow) · Cited by 15
Students' personal professional theories in vocational education : developing a knowledge base
Schaap, H. (2011) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · Cited by 16
Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité?
Bocquillon, M., Gauthier, C., Bissonnette, S., & Derobertmasure, A. (2020) · Formation et profession · doi:10.18162/fp.2020.513 · Cited by 15
Liu, Y., & Liu, Y. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17093869 · Cited by 18
Tsipianitis, D., Misirli, A., Lavidas, K., & Komis, V. (2025) · IoT · doi:10.3390/iot6030045 · Cited by 24
“In this context, educational affordances play a central role in determining how IoT technologies translate into meaningful learning experiences [59,60].”
Using Quantum Games To Teach Quantum Mechanics, Part 1
Hoehn, R. D., Mack, N., & Kais, S. (2014) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/ed400385k · Cited by 15
Weber, S., & Funke, S. (2012) · Empirical research in vocational education and training · doi:10.1007/bf03546507 · Cited by 15
Experiencing teaching and learning quantitative reasoning in a project-based context
Muir, T., Beswick, K., Callingham, R. A., & Jade, K. (2016) · Mathematics Education Research Journal · doi:10.1007/s13394-016-0176-0 · Cited by 15
Mitra, N. K., Aung, H. H., Kumari, M., et al. (2020) · Translational Research in Anatomy · doi:10.1016/j.tria.2020.100100 · Cited by 15
“In the present study, online guided instruction to identify the anatomical structures minimized the extraneous cognitive load (which was a hindrance to the student learning) and facilitated interactive learning with greater engagement [12].”
Schumacher, R., & Stern, E. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.979430 · Cited by 31
“The degree of self-determination that students need for meaningful learning has long been debated in learning sciences (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
