The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 2,401–2,500 of 6,869
Early, M., & Kendrick, M. (2020) · Canadian Modern Language Review/ La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes · doi:10.3138/cmlr-2019-0025 · Cited by 14
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006, p. 75) conflate these diverse “inquiry-based approaches” with “un-guided or minimally guided instructional approaches” and argue for the superiority of traditional guided instruction.”
Ginga, U. A., & Zakariya, Y. F. (2020) · Education Research International · doi:10.1155/2020/3606490 · Cited by 13
Moseley, A., & Connolly, J. W. D. (2020) · Teaching Public Administration · doi:10.1177/0144739420935971 · Cited by 13
Gomez, C. A. S. (2020) · International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education · doi:10.1177/0306419020950751 · Cited by 16
Assessing Biology Pre-Service Teachers’ Professional Vision of Teaching Scientific Inquiry
Vogt, F., & Schmiemann, P. (2020) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci10110332 · Cited by 13
“A suitable method to teach inquiry-based learning is guided-inquiry teaching [74,75], as learning inquiry skills in a guided setting help students to overcome high cognitive challenges of open inquiry learning [76].”
MethodKriewaldt, J., Robertson, L., Ziebell, N., Biase, R. D., & Clarke, D. J. (2021) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2021.101776 · Cited by 14
Data-Related Ethics Issues in Technologies for Informal Professional Learning
Pammer‐Schindler, V., & Rosé, C. P. (2021) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-021-00259-x · Cited by 17
Asshoff, R., Konnemann, C., Tramowsky, N., & Rieß, W. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13169208 · Cited by 14
“Thus, direct instruction might be advantageous [17] (note: in our case group A, B, and C, see Section 5.”
BackgroundStudent-Collaboration in Online Computer Science Courses – An Explorative Case Study
Standl, B., Kühn, T., & Schlomske-Bodenstein, N. (2021) · International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy (iJEP) · doi:10.3991/ijep.v11i5.22413 · Cited by 13
“The aim is to prompt learning through computer-supported collaborative instruction so that the group of students acquires more knowledge than they would have alone [20].”
BackgroundA Systematic Review of Tech-supported Collaborative Creativity Practices in the Field of Education
Gündoğdu, B., & Merç, A. (2021) · Journal of Learning and Teaching in Digital Age · doi:10.53850/joltida.953760 · Cited by 14
“On the other hand, some other scholars highlight the importance of use of strategies by students, guidance of students towards desired attitude, and use of explicit directions by teacher (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006; Daemmrich, 2010; Lin & Yang, 2011).”
BackgroundDeveloping Computational Thinking Skills With Algorithm-Driven Spreadsheeting
Csernoch, M., Biró, P., & Máth, J. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3126757 · Cited by 21
“1), navigating on graphic interfaces at lightning speed does not develop computer problem-solving abilities; – accepting the myth of the digital native and the multi-tasker generations proposed by Prensky [74] has been clearly rejected recently, and been proved to be only a myth [75], [76].”
BackgroundRöllke, K., Sellmann-Risse, D., Wenzel, A., & Grotjohann, N. (2021) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2021.1993377 · Cited by 13
“At the same time, Kirschner et al. (2006) state that a high degree of self-reliance leads to cognitive load that is too high for the students and that previous studies could not prove the benefits.”
BackgroundInfluentialNiegemann, H. M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54368-9_7 · Cited by 22
A Theoretical Framework for Fostering Diagnostic Competences with Simulations in Higher Education
Chernikova, O., Heitzmann, N., Opitz, A., Seidel, T., & Fischer, F. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89147-3_2 · Cited by 22
Improving Learning Environments: Avoiding Stupidity Perspective
Pelánek, R., & Effenberger, T. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2022.3154936 · Cited by 12
“But some failures are unproductive and frustrating; these may be caused by unclear instructions [11], [30] or insufficient guidance [31].”
BackgroundLucas, L. L., Helikar, T., & Dauer, J. T. (2022) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2022.2114815 · Cited by 13
“Providing students access to computational modelling resources makes new learning opportunities possible but students may also fi nd cognitive tasks overwhelming due to heavy demands on working memory (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundÖzmen, R. G. (2011) · Educational Sciences Theory & Practice · Cited by 13
The effect of guiding questions on students’ performance and attitude towards statistics
Budé, L. M., van de Wiel, M. W. J., Imbos, T., & Berger, M. P. F. (2011) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.2011.02031.x · Cited by 17
A Patterns Approach to Connecting the Design and Deployment of Mathematical Games and Simulations
Pratt, D., Winters, N., Cerulli, M., & Leemkuil, H. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9827-7_13 · Cited by 13
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) also pointed to the fact that some form of guidance was needed in rich problem-based experiential learning environments to prevent learners from missing essential information (see also Mayer, 2004), experiencing a cognitive overload and being unable to construct adequate mental rep…”
BackgroundPetri Net Model for Serious Games Based on Motivation Behavior Classification
Syufagi, M. A., Hariadi, M., & Purnomo, M. H. (2013) · International Journal of Computer Games Technology · doi:10.1155/2013/851287 · Cited by 13
“…in games is often based on unguided discovery such as; minimal guidance for high skill works, overwhelming discovery evidence without any assistance for beginners/novice learners [9, 10], discovery technique design, and some game cause memory overwork and decrease the learning process [11].”
BackgroundAppraising the Qualities of Social Work Students’ Theoretical Knowledge: A Qualitative Exploration
van Bommel, M., Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Kwakman, K. (2012) · Vocations and Learning · doi:10.1007/s12186-012-9078-9 · Cited by 14
Effects of Delayed Audio-Based Self-Monitoring on Teacher Completion of Learning Trials
Lylo, B. J., & Lee, D. L. (2012) · Journal of Behavioral Education · doi:10.1007/s10864-012-9166-9 · Cited by 13
Kotsopoulos, D., Makosz, S., Zambrzycka, J., et al. (2015) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-014-0686-x · Cited by 13
The interaction of drill and practice and error training with individual differences
Kluge, A., Ritzmann, S., Burkolter, D., & Sauer, J. (2010) · Cognition Technology & Work · doi:10.1007/s10111-010-0158-z · Cited by 15
“Instead, Kirschner et al. (2006) criticize that minimally guided instruction is likely to be ineffective because it is not considering the characteristics of working memory and long-term memory as fundamental structures that constitute the human cognitive architecture.”
BackgroundInfluentialArgumentation, Critical Reasoning, and Problem Solving
Spector, J. M., & Park, S. W. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3540-2_2 · Cited by 14
The reflective information literacy educator
Whitworth, A. (2012) · Nordic Journal of Information Literacy in Higher Education · doi:10.15845/noril.v4i1.151 · Cited by 13
Teamwork — teach me, teach me not: A case study of three Australian preservice teachers
Main, K. (2010) · The Australian Educational Researcher · doi:10.1007/bf03216931 · Cited by 13
“In an analysis of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquirybased teaching methods, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006, p. 78) found that “strong instructional guidance rather than constructivist-based, minimal guidance” was the most effective method of teaching skills for novice to intermedi…”
MethodPhilosophical and Pedagogical Problems with Constructivism in Science Education
Matthews, M. R. (2012) · Tréma · doi:10.4000/trema.2823 · Cited by 13
Optimizing Biomedical Science Learning in a Veterinary Curriculum: A Review
Warren, A. L., & Donnon, T. (2013) · Journal of Veterinary Medical Education · doi:10.3138/jvme.0812-070r · Cited by 15
Gálvez, I. E., Redruello, R. E. A., Martín, R. C., et al. (2006) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 13
Beal, C. R., & Stevens, R. H. (2011) · Cited by 13
Pedro, M. S., Gobert, J. D., & Raziuddin, J. (2010) · International Conference of Learning Sciences · Cited by 13
Perceptual factors and learning in digital environments
Paek, S., Hoffman, D. L., & Black, J. B. (2016) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-016-9427-8 · Cited by 13
“As Kirschner et al. (2006) wrote, ‘‘If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned’’ (p. 77).”
BackgroundTeaching methods in primary education from the teacher’s point of view
Skutil, M., Havlíčková, K., & Matějíčková, R. (2016) · SHS Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/shsconf/20162601001 · Cited by 14
Simulated Interactive Research Experiments as Educational Tools for Advanced Science
Tomandl, M., Mieling, T., Kroon, C. M. L.-V., et al. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep14108 · Cited by 13
“The simulation provides a dynamic guidance that gradually fades away as the user proceeds 20 .”
BackgroundMethodBlessinger, P., & Carfora, J. M. (2015) · Innovations in higher education teaching and learning · doi:10.1108/s2055-364120150000003001 · Cited by 14
Bernal, C. M. R. (2016) · Architectural Engineering and Design Management · doi:10.1080/17452007.2016.1230535 · Cited by 13
Digital assessment environments for scientific inquiry practices
Gobert, J. D., & Sao Pedro, M. A. (2016) · The Handbook of Cognition and Assessment · doi:10.1002/9781118956588.ch21 · Cited by 14
Forschendes Lernen in der Biologie
Bruckermann, T., Arnold, J. C., Kremer, K., & Schlüter, K. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-53308-6_2 · Cited by 19
Multidisciplinary exhibit design in a Science Centre: a participatory action research approach
Rudman, H., Ross, C., Kendal, J. R., et al. (2017) · Educational Action Research · doi:10.1080/09650792.2017.1360786 · Cited by 13
“We understand discovery learning as a minimally guided pedagogical approach (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006), where children develop or construct knowledge on their own (Klahr and Nigam 2004).”
BackgroundBuckley, J., Seery, N., & Canty, D. (2017) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-017-9423-2 · Cited by 14
“This limitation can prevent a person recalling necessary information while problem solving, however in many respects it is circumvented as ‘‘information can be brought back from long-term memory to working memory over indefinite periods of time’’ (Kirschner et al. 2006, p. 77).”
BackgroundThe Teaching and Assessment of Inquiry Competences
Rönnebeck, S., Nielsen, J. A., Olley, C., Ropohl, M., & Stables, K. (2017) · Contributions from science education research · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-63248-3_2 · Cited by 14
Levy, S. T., Peleg, R., Ofeck, E., et al. (2018) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9440-2 · Cited by 13
“…to this approach demonstrate how a caricaturized version of discovery learning that is rarely used—com-pletely unguided discovery—is ineffective, based on theories of cognitive load and expertise (Mayer 2004; Kirschner et al. 2006; Alfieri et al. 2011), particularly for inex-perienced learners.”
BackgroundDyson, H., Solity, J. E., Best, W., & Hulme, C. (2018) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1111/1460-6984.12404 · Cited by 13
Østergaard, L. D. (2018) · Sport Education and Society · doi:10.1080/13573322.2018.1508012 · Cited by 13
“As argued by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) ‘sufficiently high prior knowledge’ is needed ‘to provide internal guidance’ (p. 99).”
BackgroundA Unifying Computational Framework for Teaching and Active Learning
Yang, S. C., Vong, W. K., Yu, Y., & Shafto, P. (2019) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12405 · Cited by 11
“…instance, there is a robust debate in the educational psychology literature regarding the relative merits of direct instruction and exploratory learning, which are the analogs of formal models of teaching and active learning (Bruner, 1961; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Tobias & Duffy, 2009).”
BackgroundKiffer, S. (2018) · Revue internationale de pédagogie de l’enseignement supérieur · doi:10.4000/ripes.1654 · Cited by 16
Parr, A. K., Amemiya, J. L., & Wang, M. (2019) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2018.1560395 · Cited by 15
“Finally, dialogic and direct instruction are multifaceted constructs characterised by a wide variety of teaching practices (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006; Kuhn, 2007).”
BackgroundTowards a Model of API Learning
Kelleher, C. L., & Ichinco, M. (2019) · IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC) · doi:10.1109/vlhcc.2019.8818850 · Cited by 16
“This load can be imposed by activities like unnecessary searches for information [23] or a need to integrate different sources of information [74], [75].”
BackgroundWijnen, F., Davison, D. P., Reidsma, D., van der Meij, J., Charisi, V., & Evers, V. (2019) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3345508 · Cited by 13
“Open-ended tasks are often difficult for learners who therefore need help with structuring and understanding [Kirschner et al. 2006; Lazonder 2014; Mayer 2004] to progress to their “Zone of Proximal Development” [Vygotsky 1978].”
BackgroundKey Components of Learning Environments in Creating a Positive Flipped Classroom Course Experience
Hyypiä, M., Sointu, E. T., Hirsto, L., & Valtonen, T. (2019) · International Journal of Learning Teaching and Educational Research · doi:10.26803/ijlter.18.13.4 · Cited by 14
“Therefore, as urged by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), the shift from the teacher’s direct guidance to students’ self-direction in FC occurs and is supported only when students have an adequate level of prior knowledge.”
BackgroundGoletti, O., Mens, K., & Hermans, F. (2021) · ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education (ITiCSE) · doi:10.1145/3430665.3456348 · Cited by 17
“PBL has sometimes been criticized as an active teaching approach, because the minimal guidance it provides is in contradiction with CLT principles [15].”
BackgroundAn Adaptive Instructional Architecture for Training and Education
Nicholson, D. M., Fidopiastis, C., Davis, L., et al. (2007) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-73216-7_43 · Cited by 13
“Providing a realistic and interactive training protocol may optimize the knowledge acquisition capabilities of the learner, which may in turn decrease training time [3].”
BackgroundINCASE: SIMULATING EXPERIENCE TO ACCELERATE EXPERTISE DEVELOPMENT BY KNOWLEDGE WORKERS
Arnold, V., Collier, P. A., Leech, S. A., Sutton, S. G., & Vincent, A. L. (2013) · Intelligent systems in accounting, finance and management/Intelligent systems in accounting, finance & management · doi:10.1002/isaf.1337 · Cited by 13
“Criticisms of constructivist-based learning techniques have focused on the lack of guidance offered to learners (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInquiry-Based Learning with or without Facilitator Interactions.
Weerasinghe, T., Ramberg, R., & Hewagamage, K. P. (2012) · International journal of e-learning & distance education · Cited by 12
An inquiry-based learning approach to teaching information retrieval
Jones, G. J. F. (2009) · Information Retrieval · doi:10.1007/s10791-009-9088-x · Cited by 13
“While the utility of inquiry-based learning relative to more standard teaching methods is still an active debate ( Kirschner et al. 2006; Hmelo-Silver et al. 2007), the author’s experience of using it has been very positive in terms of student engagement with material during teaching and assessment, and the demonstrat…”
BackgroundTeaching Adult Learners in Online Career and Technical Education
Hernández-Gantes, V. M. (2009) · International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies · doi:10.4018/jwbltt.2009091503 · Cited by 13
Design and effects of representational scripting on group performance
Slof, B., Erkens, G., Kirschner, P. A., & Jaspers, J. (2010) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-010-9148-3 · Cited by 13
“According to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), carrying out complex learning-tasks is an instructional method based on the epistemological content (i.e., methods and processes) instead of the pedagogical content (i.e., acquiring knowledge) of a knowledge domain.”
BackgroundSelf-citationImpact of Experiments on 13-year-old Pupils’ Understanding of Selected Science Concepts
Urbančič, M., & Glažar, S. A. (2012) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.12973/eurasia.2012.836a · Cited by 13
Towards Cognitive Load Theory as Guideline for Instructional Design in Science Education
Meissner, B. A., & Bogner, F. X. (2013) · World Journal of Education · doi:10.5430/wje.v3n2p24 · Cited by 20
Baillie, A., Proudfoot, H., Knight, R., Peters, L., Sweller, J., Schwartz, S. S., & Pachana, N. A. (2011) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1111/j.1742-9544.2011.00036.x · Cited by 13
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) argued that undertaking complex discovery may interfere with learning.”
BackgroundSelf-citationKern, C. L., & Crippen, K. J. (2016) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-016-9649-x · Cited by 12
“The guidance provided by self-explanation prompts reduces the extraneous cognitive load associated with unguided activities, thereby providing a direction for the cognitive processing necessary for learning (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundAkkuzu, N., & Uyulgan, M. A. (2017) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c7rp00050b · Cited by 15
A Study on the Mobile Learning of English and American Literature Based on Wechat Public Account
Dai, G., Liu, Y., & Cui, S. (2018) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v11n6p47 · Cited by 13
Transmergent learning and the creation of extraordinary educational experiences
Honebein, P. C. (2009) · Educational Technology archive · Cited by 13
Inaugural issue perspectives onInformation and Learning Sciencesas an integral scholarly nexus
Reynolds, R. B., Chu, S. K. W., Ahn, J., Shum, S. B., Hansen, P., Haythornthwaite, C., Huang, H., Meyers, E. M., & Rieh, S. Y. (2019) · Information and Learning Sciences · doi:10.1108/ils-01-2019-138 · Cited by 13
Investigations of Modellers and Model Viewers in an Out-of-School Gene Technology Laboratory
Mierdel, J., & Bogner, F. X. (2019) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-019-09871-3 · Cited by 15
“The comparison of cognitive achievement levels shows a significant higher midterm knowledge increase for the model viewers, indicating a deeper understanding of the scientific theory due to a lowered decrease rate (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundResultManson, E., & Ayres, P. (2019) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2019.1650895 · Cited by 13
Designing for productive failure in mathematical problem solving
Kapur, M., & Lee, J. (2009) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 13
Reber, R. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118294895.ch54 · Cited by 13
6. Observational Scores as Predictors for Student Achievement Gains
Klette, K., Roe, A., & Blikstad‐Balas, M. (2022) · doi:10.18261/9788215045054-2021-06 · Cited by 13
Verschaffel, L., Dooren, W. V., & Smedt, B. D. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_448 · Cited by 13
Problem-solving support and instructional sequence: impact on cognitive load and student performance
Costley, J., Gorbunova, A., Courtney, M., Chen, O., & Lange, C. (2024) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-023-00757-7 · Cited by 13
“Although direct instruction aids learners in recognizing the problem structure (Kirschner et al., 2006), there are conditions in which learners benefit from exploring the problem structure with instructional support, before the delivery of direct instruction (Paas & Kirschner, 2012).”
Parsons, A. S., Wijesekera, T. P., Olson, A. P. J., Torre, D., Durning, S. J., & Daniel, M. (2025) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2024.2359963 · Cited by 12
“Fundamental principles and foundational concepts (e.g. anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, etc) must be explicity taught Kirschner et al. (2006).”
Global Development of Problem-based Learning: Adoption, Adaptation, and Advancement
Hung, W., & Loyens, S. M. M. (2012) · EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1309 · Cited by 12
Sana, F., & Fenesi, B. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15060765 · Cited by 21
“Research suggests that lower-WMC learners struggle with open-ended problem-solving tasks due to increased cognitive load, whereas structured guidance helps them acquire and apply new information more efficiently (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Hägg, G., & Kurczewska, A. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-87865-8_3 · Cited by 12
Trninić, D., Sinha, T., & Kapur, M. (2022) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101688 · Cited by 15
Wirebring, L. K., Wiklund‐Hörnqvist, C., Stillesjö, S., Granberg, C., Lithner, J., Andersson, M., Nyberg, L. H., & Jonsson, B. (2022) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2022.100193 · Cited by 21
A Guided Inquiry Learning Design for a Large-Scale Chemical Thermodynamics Laboratory Module
Partanen, L. J. (2022) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.2c00387 · Cited by 12
Kleinknecht, M., Schneider, J. M., & Syring, M. (2014) · BzL - Beiträge zur Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung · doi:10.36950/bzl.32.2014.9613 · Cited by 12
Barenthien, J. M., Fiebranz, A., Todorova, M., Möller, K., & Steffensky, M. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102186 · Cited by 13
Ariati, J., Pham, T., & Vogler, J. S. (2023) · Active Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.1177/14697874231183642 · Cited by 15
“Even within such an environment, intentional instructor guidance is needed, particularly for novice learners (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Explicit and evidence-based literacy instruction in middle school: an observation study
Stark, K., Wexler, J., Shelton, A., et al. (2023) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-023-10470-y · Cited by 12
“…present mastery of the skills needed to perform a task and the amount of support students need to move students toward mastery of the target task (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mathews et al., 2021), teachers may draw on a wide variety of instructional practices to support developing readers in…”
Hohrath, S., Aßmann, S., Krabbe, H., & Opfermann, M. (2024) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-024-00810-z · Cited by 14
“(p. 682) Nevertheless, it is discussed whether inquiry-based learning supports effective learning of physical concepts (Hattie, 2009; Kirschner et al., 2006; Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016).”
Seeking a Comprehensive Theory About the Development of Scientific Thinking
Lombardi, D., Sinatra, G. M., Bailey, J. M., & Butler, L. P. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09911-z · Cited by 17
“Many thought that engagement in the scientific inquiry cycle for children and adolescents was unstructured discovery learning (see, for example, Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Wu, Q., Ji, W., Zhou, G., & Yang, Y. (2025) · Knowledge-Based Systems · doi:10.1016/j.knosys.2025.113281 · Cited by 14
Collaborative Learning in Facebook: Adverse Effects of Individual Preparation
Judele, R., Tsovaltzi, D., Puhl, T., & Weinberger, A. (2014) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.1109/hicss.2014.207 · Cited by 12
“Minimal guidance, in this context, views learners as active participants who have to discover information or construct strategies for developing their own concepts [13].”
BackgroundUniversity librarians respond to changes in higher education: example of a medical school
Chang, S., & Chen, K. (2011) · Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication · doi:10.1108/03074801111182021 · Cited by 12
“Previous studies indicate that social learning, problem-solving and the establishment of credibility are three crucial components of constructivist learning ( Kirschner et al. , 2006”
BackgroundIserbyt, P. (2013) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2013.817009 · Cited by 12
“The latter is supported by arguments of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), who stated that in unguided learning environments, working memory is used to search for problem solutions and information and consequently cannot be used to learn.”
BackgroundConcrete–Semiconcrete–Abstract (CSA) Instruction
Sealander, K., Johnson, G. R., Lockwood, A. B., & Medina, C. (2012) · Assessment for Effective Intervention · doi:10.1177/1534508412453164 · Cited by 12
How does lesson structure shape teacher perceptions of teaching with challenging tasks
Russo, J., & Hopkins, S. (2017) · Mathematics teacher education and development · Cited by 12
Design of a Three-Dimensional Cognitive Mapping Approach to Support Inquiry Learning.
Chen, J., Wang, M., Dede, C., & Grotzer, T. A. (2017) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 12
Orrú, G., Gobbo, F., O’Sullivan, D., & Longo, L. (2018) · International Conference on Computer Supported Education · doi:10.5220/0006790702920302 · Cited by 12
“An important issue of constructivism is the lack of explicit instructional designs (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Background‘Post-truth’ schooling and marketized education: explaining the decline in Sweden's school quality
Henrekson, M., & Wennström, J. (2019) · Journal of Institutional Economics · doi:10.1017/s174413741900016x · Cited by 11
“…especially since the national curriculum obligates teachers to work together with and continuously inform parents about the pupil’s school situation. has been found to be the most effective method for achieving this outcome (Hattie, 2009; Jerrim et al., 2019; Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
The potential of the ‘Internet of Things’ to enhance inquiry in Singapore schools
Davies, D., Beauchamp, G., Davies, J., & Price, R. (2019) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2019.1629896 · Cited by 12
Dubovi, I., & Lee, V. R. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103644 · Cited by 14
van Enschot, R., Boogaard, I., Koenitz, H., & Roth, C. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-33894-7_17 · Cited by 14
OPTIMIZATION OF GUIDED DISCOVERY LEARNING MODELS TO INCREASE STUDENTS' INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS
Nurhayani, N., Rosnawati, R., & Amimah, T. (2020) · Infinity Journal · doi:10.22460/infinity.v9i1.p69-80 · Cited by 12
An Evidence-Based Logic for the Use of Positive Reinforcement: Responses to Typical Criticisms
Scott, T. M., & Landrum, T. J. (2020) · Beyond Behavior · doi:10.1177/1074295620917153 · Cited by 12
“Thus, effective instruction (which inherently involves feedback) has been demonstrated to be an essential component of setting students up to have confidence and high self-esteem (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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