The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–400 of 6,869
Digital game elements, user experience and learning: A conceptual framework
Alexiou, A., & Schippers, M. C. (2018) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-018-9730-6 · Cited by 182
“…is based on the assumptions that having students construct their own solutions to Bauthentic^ problems results in a more effective learning experience and that knowledge can be best acquired though experience with the methods or processes of the discipline being studied (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialExample-Based Learning in Heuristic Domains: A Cognitive Load Theory Account
Renkl, A., Hilbert, T. S., & Schworm, S. (2008) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-008-9093-4 · Cited by 148
“Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007).”
BackgroundMaking sense of movement in embodied design for mathematics learning
Abrahamson, D., & Bakker, A. (2016) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-016-0034-3 · Cited by 153
“As such, empirical research on implementing the constraints-based instructional approach may contribute to current discussions on the process and merit of explorative learning (cf. Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundFactors promoting engaged exploration with computer simulations
Podolefsky, N. S., Perkins, K. K., & Adams, W. K. (2010) · Physical Review Special Topics - Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevstper.6.020117 · Cited by 135
Experimental comparison of inquiry and direct instruction in science
Cobern, W. W., Schuster, D., Adams, B. A., Applegate, B. E., Skjold, B. A., Undreiu, A., Loving, C. C., & Gobert, J. D. (2010) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635140903513599 · Cited by 134
“Such views are not isolated; in 2006 Kirschner, Sweller and Clark published a paper entitled ‘Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work’, with Sweller furthering the critique in 2009 .”
BackgroundStudent Learning: What Has Instruction Got to Do With It?
Lee, H. S., & Anderson, J. R. (2012) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143833 · Cited by 150
“Kirschner et al. (2006), in their similarly provocatively titled paper “Why minimal an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based inquiry-based teaching,” come to a similar conclusion.”
BackgroundTeaching strategies and differential effectiveness across learning contexts: Evidence from PISA 2012
Caro, D., Lenkeit, J., & Kyriakides, L. (2016) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2016.03.005 · Cited by 125
Roth, W., & Jornet, A. (2013) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21085 · Cited by 133
“Indeed, the debate concerning whether instruction is to be teacher-led (direct instruction) or student-led (free exploration) often falls within a dichotomous views in which either-or positions seem to be the only alternatives (e.g., Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
Artino, A. R., Holmboe, E. S., & Durning, S. J. (2012) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.3109/0142159x.2012.651515 · Cited by 151
“…problems have the potential to quickly overwhelm students’ working memory capacity and, consequently, can deleteriously impact learning (for a complete review of the limitations of problem-based learning and other e154 types of minimally-guided instruction, see Mayer 2004; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
Background‘Oh, was that “experiential learning”?!’ Spaces, synergies and surprises with Kolb’s learning cycle
Tomkins, L., & Ulus, E. (2015) · Management Learning · doi:10.1177/1350507615587451 · Cited by 163
“Kirschner et al. (2006) argue that supporters of EL confuse student learning with student satisfaction when claiming better outcomes for EL methods.”
BackgroundMethodScaffolding mathematical modelling with a solution plan
Schukajlow, S., Kolter, J., & Blum, W. F. (2015) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-015-0707-2 · Cited by 153
“The provision of prepared “worked examples“ or “heuristic examples“, as sample solutions to be processed independently by students, seems to be a promising approach to expand students’ repertoire of strategies (Atkinson et al. 2000; Sweller et al. 1998; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundCognitive Effects of Multimedia Learning
(2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-158-2 · Cited by 139
Hassinger-Das, B., Jordan, N., & Dyson, N. I. (2015) · The Elementary school journal · doi:10.1086/683986 · Cited by 15
Instructional effects on critical thinking: Performance on ill-defined issues
Angeli, C., & Valanides, N. (2008) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.06.010 · Cited by 143
Schnittka, C. G., & Bell, R. L. (2010) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2010.529177 · Cited by 132
“Furthermore, critics assert that minimally guided, inquiry‐based teaching places too heavy a cognitive load on a limited working memory (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ).”
BackgroundActive Learning is About More Than Hands-On: A Mixed-Reality AI System to Support STEM Education
Yannier, N., Hudson, S. E., & Koedinger, K. R. (2020) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-020-00194-3 · Cited by 159
“Evidence for the benefits of such guidance comes from a variety of sources (Waldrop 2015; Clark and Mayer 2011; Hattie 2009; Alfieri et al. 2011; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundThe worked-example effect using ill-defined problems: Learning to recognise designers' styles
Rourke, A. J., & Sweller, J. (2008) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.03.006 · Cited by 146
Self-citationTeig, N., Scherer, R., & Nilsen, T. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.02.006 · Cited by 147
Cognitive Load Theory: New Directions and Challenges
Ayres, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2882 · Cited by 148
Arbaugh, J. B. (2014) · Organizational Behavior Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/1052562914534244 · Cited by 130
“Without the cues provided through the relatively rich media of face-to-face contact, online activities in the hands of novice learners can descend into self-directed mal-aise (Daymont & Blau, 2011; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundThe Cambridge Handbook of Computing Education Research
Fincher, S., Robins, A. V., Margulieux, L. E., Morrison, B. B., Shephard, K., Loui, M., Borrego, M., Lancaster, T., Falkner, K., Sheard, J., et al. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555 · Cited by 141
Improving representational competence using molecular simulations embedded in inquiry activities
Stieff, M. (2011) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20438 · Cited by 126
Developing Mathematics Knowledge
Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2017) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12229 · Cited by 126
Maker Movement in Education: History and Prospects
Blikstein, P. (2017) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44687-5_33 · Cited by 148
“…twentieth century the fi eld of educational research and practice has been divided into two camps, grosso modo : traditionalists/instructivists and progressives/constructivists (this is an oversimpli fi cation: for a more elaborate discussion, see, for example, Kirschner et al. 2006; Papert 2000).”
BackgroundThe role of guided induction in paper-based data-driven learning
Smart, J. (2014) · ReCALL · doi:10.1017/s0958344014000081 · Cited by 125
“Critics of discovery-oriented learning, however, point out that the preponderance of educational research indicates that more learning occurs when learners are given greater guidance (e.g., Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundSchenck, J., & Cruickshank, J. (2014) · Journal of Experiential Education · doi:10.1177/1053825914547153 · Cited by 150
“Performance drops when a student must focus on both the “what” of the topic and the “how” of problem-solving (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundSerious games for health: three steps forwards
Drummond, D., Hadchouel, A., & Tesnière, A. (2017) · Advances in Simulation · doi:10.1186/s41077-017-0036-3 · Cited by 135
“…which provides learners with direct instructional guidance on the concepts and procedures required by a particular discipline, leads to superior learning outcomes than unguided or minimally guided environment, in which learners must discover or construct essential information for themselves [21].”
BackgroundThe NISPI framework: Analysing collaborative problem-solving from students' physical interactions
Cukurova, M., Luckin, R., Millán, E., & Mavrikis, M. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.08.007 · Cited by 130
“However, existing evidence on the effectiveness of these methods to satisfy their learning outcomes is rare (Klahr & Nigam, 2004), and they have been harshly criticised by some researchers as not being effective pedagogical approaches (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundRaising early achievement in math with interactive apps: A randomized control trial.
Outhwaite, L. A., Faulder, M., Gulliford, A., & Pitchford, N. J. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000286 · Cited by 124
“…meaningful, and socially interactive learning with a specific learning goal (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2015) can combine benefits of direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006), for example, feed-back, repetition, and rewards with features of free play (Gray, 2015) particularly, self-regulation and…”
BackgroundOliver, M., McConney, A. A., & Woods‐McConney, A. (2019) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-019-09901-0 · Cited by 165
“Despite its ubiquity in practice and policy across the western world, however, the efficacy of inquiry-based approaches for fostering scientific literacy has been increasingly scrutinised (McConney et al. 2014 ; Cairns and Areepattamannil 2017; Hattie 2009; Kirschner et al. 2006; Klahr 2013).”
BackgroundEvaluating metacognitive scaffolding in Guided Invention Activities
Roll, I., Holmes, N. G., Day, J., & Bonn, D. A. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9208-7 · Cited by 126
The Top-Cited Articles in Medical Education
Azer, S. A. (2015) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000000780 · Cited by 129
Scaffolded Inquiry-Based Instruction with Technology: A Signature Pedagogy for STEM Education
Crippen, K. J., & Archambault, L. (2012) · Computers in the Schools · doi:10.1080/07380569.2012.658733 · Cited by 122
Prieto, L. P., Sharma, K. K., Kidziński, Ł., Rodríguez‐Triana, M. J., & Dillenbourg, P. (2018) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12232 · Cited by 144
“This importance has been highlighted by educational research efforts in naturalistic settings, including inquiry-based learning experiences (e.g., Kirschner et al. 2006), computer-supported collaborative writing (e.g., Onrubia & Engel 2012), and many others.”
BackgroundThe language of play: Developing preschool vocabulary through play following shared book-reading
Toub, T. S., Hassinger‐Das, B., Nesbitt, K. T., Ilgaz, H., Weisberg, D. S., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Nicolopoulou, A., & Dickinson, D. K. (2018) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.01.010 · Cited by 157
Reclaiming constructive alignment
Loughlin, C., Lygo‐Baker, S., & Lindberg‐Sand, Å. (2020) · European Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1080/21568235.2020.1816197 · Cited by 173
Patel, V. L., Yoskowitz, N. A., Arocha, J. F., & Shortliffe, E. H. (2008) · Journal of Biomedical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.jbi.2008.12.002 · Cited by 133
Taber, K. S. (2018) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-7507-8.ch015 · Cited by 132
Gobert, J. D., Sao Pedro, M. A., Baker, R. S. J. D., Toto, E., & Montalvo, O. (2012) · Zenodo · doi:10.5281/zenodo.3554645 · Cited by 122
“This scaffolding design lead to a guided system; that is, we aimed to strike a balance between openended and guided inquiry [cf., Kirschner et al. 2006; Hmelo-Silver et al. 2007] such that students can be assessed on inquiry skills and so that they are provided with support so they do not flounder…”
BackgroundCalvo‐Ferrer, J. R. (2017) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12387 · Cited by 120
“…increase their L2 vocabulary via The Conference Interpreter game, arose from claims which suggest that “games themselves are not sufficient for learning” unless accompanied by instructional support (see Kirschner et al , 2006; Leemkuil et al , 2003; O’Neil et al , 2005; Tobias & Fletcher, 2007).”
BackgroundHow instructional design experts use knowledge and experience to solve ill-structured problems
Ertmer, P. A., Stepich, D. A., York, C. S., Stickman, A., Wu, X. (., Zurek, S., & Göktaş, Y. (2008) · Performance Improvement Quarterly · doi:10.1002/piq.20013 · Cited by 128
Information literacy skills: Teacher understandings and practice
Probert, E. (2009) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.12.018 · Cited by 123
Inquiry-Based Learning: A Review of the Research Literature
Friesen, S., & Scott, D. (2013) · Cited by 121
DESIGNING ENGINEERING EXPERIENCES TO ENGAGE ALL STUDENTS
Cunningham, C. M., & Lachapelle, C. (2014) · Purdue University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctt6wq7bh.10 · Cited by 122
Mäkitalo‐Siegl, K., Kohnle, C., & Fischer, F. (2010) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2010.07.001 · Cited by 120
“In environments with a high level of structure, students are able to focus on understanding and do not have to allocate cognitive resources (Kirschner et al., 2006) to help(cid:10)seeking processes that are generally ineffective due to a lack of high(cid:10)level help(cid:10)seeking skills.”
BackgroundStudent-Centered, Open Learning Environments: Research, Theory, and Practice
Hannafin, M. J., Hill, J. R., Land, S. M., & Lee, E. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_51 · Cited by 133
“Similar arguments have been presented for constructivist-inspired learning strategies and environments including student-centered learning, inquiry-based learning, and self-directed learning (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundCulturally Responsive Computing in Urban, After-School Contexts
Eglash, R., Gilbert, J. E., Taylor, V., & Geier, S. (2013) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/0042085913499211 · Cited by 121
“…there are limits to the active, discovery learning method: If learners lack sufficient preparation they may become frustrated; if they already have misconceptions they may be reinforced; and some skills are difficult to master without considerable repetition (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundFlipping the Classroom: How to Embed Inquiry and Design Projects into a Digital Engineering Lecture
Warter-Perez, N., & Dong, J. (2012) · Cited by 118
Kao, G. Y., Chiang, C.-H., & Sun, C. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.05.022 · Cited by 125
Wosinski, J., Belcher, A. E., Dürrenberger, Y., Allin-Pfister, A.-C., Stormacq, C., & Gerson, L. D. (2017) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2017.08.015 · Cited by 124
A comparison of lecture-based, active, and flipped classroom teaching approaches in higher education
Kay, R. H., MacDonald, T., & DiGiuseppe, M. (2018) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-018-9197-x · Cited by 119
Antonopoulou, H., Halkiopoulos, C., Gkintoni, E., & Katsimpelis, A. (2022) · International Journal of Learning Teaching and Educational Research · doi:10.26803/ijlter.21.5.19 · Cited by 132
“The levels track the user's progress and keep us informed of both his own and his colleagues' achievements ( Kirschner et al., 2006 ).”
BackgroundExperimental analysis of the effective components of problem‐based learning
Dreibelbis, M. A. P., & Kuhn, D. (2010) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20412 · Cited by 122
Learning Geometry through Discovery Learning Using a Scientific Approach
In’am, A., & Hajar, S. (2017) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.12973/iji.2017.1014a · Cited by 118
“Concerning with this matter, it may cause less learning (Rittle-Johnson, 2006), so that the learners need ability to monitor the processes that have been learned to pay attention to what already have (Case, 1998; Kirschner et al, 2006).”
Effect of worksheet scaffolds on student learning in problem-based learning
Choo, S. S. Y., Rotgans, J. I., Yew, E. H. J., & Schmidt, H. G. (2011) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-011-9288-1 · Cited by 117
“In recent years, a debate erupted among researchers about the question of how much guidance do students need in problem-based learning (PBL) (Hmelo-Silver et al. 2007; Kirschner et al. 2006; Simons and Klein 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialPromoting Academic Motivation and Self-Regulation: Practical Guidelines for Online Instructors
Artino, A. R. (2008) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-008-0153-x · Cited by 123
Toward a New Meta-Theory for Designing Information Systems (IS) Security Training Approaches
Karjalainen, M., & Siponen, M. T. (2011) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · doi:10.17705/1jais.00274 · Cited by 117
Self-determination for all language learners: New applications for formal language education
McEown, M. S., & Oga-Baldwin, W. L. Q. (2019) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2019.102124 · Cited by 146
Höttecke, D., Henke, A., & Rieß, F. (2010) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-010-9330-3 · Cited by 117
“From the various instantiations of inquiry based learning we chose to adopt a guided approach, since research indicates a guided inquiry approach to be superior to approaches relying on minimal guidance (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
MethodCognitive outcomes from the Game-Design and Learning (GDL) after-school program
Akcaoğlu, M., & Koehler, M. J. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.02.003 · Cited by 119
“This support helps alleviate the cognitive burden on the learners and benefits the learners more, compared to pure discovery (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodIbáñez, M. B., Serio, Á. D., Villarán, D., & Kloos, C. D. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2015.2445761 · Cited by 116
“On the other hand, often the use of web-based computer simulations in discovery learning has been ineffective in improving learning processes and outcomes [13], [14], [15], [16].”
BackgroundMisperceptions of global climate change: information policies
Moxnes, E., & Saysel, A. K. (2008) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-008-9465-2 · Cited by 117
(2012) · AUSpace (Athabasca University) · Cited by 126
Learning from productive failure
Kapur, M. (2015) · Learning Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/23735082.2015.1002195 · Cited by 126
“I conclude by situating my findings in the broader research literature, as well as deriving implications for the longstanding instructivist-constructivist debate on the design of learning (Kirschner et al., 2006; Tobias & Duffy, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialCan collaborative learning improve the effectiveness of worked examples in learning mathematics?
Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2016) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000167 · Cited by 115
“A worked example provides a step-by-step solution to a problem or task and is a form of explicit instruction (see P. A. Kirschner et al., 2006).”
MethodSelf-citationAdaptivity Through Self-Directed Learning to Meet the Challenges of Our Ever-Changing World
Morris, T. H. (2018) · Adult Learning · doi:10.1177/1045159518814486 · Cited by 124
“In this regard, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) argued that inquiry-based teaching that involves minimal guidance (no instruction) “does not work” (p. 75).”
BackgroundSweller, J. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09647-0 · Cited by 150
Self-citationUnderstanding innovative pedagogies
Peterson, A., Dumont, H., Martínez, M. L., & Law, N. W. Y. (2018) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/9f843a6e-en · Cited by 145
“Cognitive load theory suggests that having too much freedom to explore complex learning material results in cognitive overload for many students and prevents them from engaging with the learning content in depth (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundRusandi, M. A., Ahman, Saripah, I., Khairun, D. Y., & Mutmainnah (2023) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdad049 · Cited by 115
Baeten, M., Dochy, F. J. R. C., Struyven, K., et al. (2015) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-015-9190-5 · Cited by 114
Teaching Science Through Inquiry: Seven Common Myths about this Time-Honored Approach
Wilcox, J. L., Kruse, J., & Clough, M. P. (2015) · The Science Teacher · doi:10.2505/4/tst15_082_06_62 · Cited by 112
Using cognitive theory to facilitate medical education
Qiao, Y. Q., Shen, J., Liang, X., Ding, S., Chen, F. Y., Shao, L., Zheng, Q., & Ran, Z. H. (2014) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/1472-6920-14-79 · Cited by 111
“While Kirschner debates the effect of PBL [9], Sanson-Fisher et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialEducating the Developing Mind: Towards an Overarching Paradigm
Δημητρίου, Α., Spanoudis, G. C., & Mouyi, A. (2011) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9178-3 · Cited by 129
“Reviewing a large number of studies, cognitive load researchers have reached the same conclusion (Sweller 1994; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundTeaching Negotiation Skills through Practice and Reflection with Virtual Humans
Core, M. G., Traum, D. R., Lane, H. C., Swartout, W., Gratch, J. S., van Lent, M., & Marsella, S. (2006) · SIMULATION · doi:10.1177/0037549706075542 · Cited by 120
“Research in the science of learning has shown that timely and thoughtful guidance is needed to maximize the benefit of learning experiences [8, 9].”
BackgroundLaw, Y. (2010) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2010.01445.x · Cited by 119
Beyond numeracy in preschool: Adding patterns to the equation
Rittle‐Johnson, B., Fyfe, E. R., Loehr, A. M., et al. (2015) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.01.005 · Cited by 111
Cushion, C. J. (2013) · Sports Coaching Review · doi:10.1080/21640629.2013.861312 · Cited by 111
“Athletes must always be physically or socially active to learn (Kirschner et al., 2006; Light, Harvey & Mouchet, 2012; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundInstructional Theory and Technology for the New Paradigm of Education
Reigeluth, C. M. (2016) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · doi:10.4324/9781315760933.ch5 · Cited by 111
Franse, R. K., van Schijndel, T. J. P., & Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01047 · Cited by 111
Data-driven learning – a call for a broader research gaze
O’Keeffe, A. (2020) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444820000245 · Cited by 134
“Many learners may resist independent process-oriented learning (see McGroarty, 1998; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Backgroundvan der Meij, H., van der Meij, J., & Harmsen, R. (2015) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-015-9378-5 · Cited by 111
“Therefore, it is not surprising that pure inquiry learning has been found to be less conducive to learning than guided-inquiry learning or direct instruction (e.g., Alfieri et al. 2011; Eysink et al. 2009; Kirschner et al. 2006; Scalise et al. 2011).”
BackgroundRavitz, J. (2010) · Peabody Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0161956x.2010.491432 · Cited by 111
“Unlike “discovery learning” or “minimally-guided” instruction ( Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ; Mayer, 2004 ), effective use of PBL requires extensive planning and professional development, a supportive environment, and tools and strategies for effective instruction (eg, Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006 ; Strobel & va…”
PEDAGOGICALLY STRUCTURED GAME-BASED TRAINING: DEVELOPMENT OF THE ELECT BILAT SIMULATION
Hill, R. W., Dixon, M. W., Forbell, E., Kim, J., Hart, J., Belanich, J., Lane, H. C., & Core, M. G. (2006) · doi:10.13140/2.1.2902.7520 · Cited by 110
Amershi, S., & Conati, C. (2009) · Journal of Educational Data Mining · doi:10.5281/zenodo.3554659 · Cited by 110
Support of mathematical thinking through embodied cognition: Nondigital and digital approaches
Tran, C., Smith, B., & Buschkuehl, M. (2017) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-017-0053-8 · Cited by 134
“Explanations for this include the possibilities that more guided tasks lower the demands on working memory and executive functioning abilities to allow learners to direct those efforts to problem-solving processes (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundReview of Research on Computer Games
Tobias, S., Fletcher, J. D., Wind, A. P., & Dai, D. Y. (2011) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-61735-410-620251009 · Cited by 122
Zheng, B., Ward, A., & Stanulis, R. N. (2019) · Medical Education Online · doi:10.1080/10872981.2019.1686949 · Cited by 141
“Medical educators continue to ask about the nature of specific guidance that supports students in discovery learning [22].”
BackgroundJohnson‐Glenberg, M. C., Bartolomea, H., & Kalina, E. (2021) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12567 · Cited by 130
Fullerton, J. T., Thompson, J. B., & Johnson, P. (2013) · Midwifery · doi:10.1016/j.midw.2013.07.006 · Cited by 105
“This shift does not negate the need to provide the formative and summative assessments that are essential to documenting a students' progress across the term of a course or of a curriculum of studies (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundExamining the learning effects of live streaming video game instruction over Twitch
Payne, K., Keith, M. J., Schuetzler, R. M., & Giboney, J. S. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.029 · Cited by 117
“Kirschner et al. (2006) offer the example that there are two ways to teach the concept of a square to a student.”
BackgroundIntegrating Cognitive Science and Technology Improves Learning in a STEM Classroom
Butler, A. C., Marsh, E. J., Slavinsky, J. P., & Baraniuk, R. G. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9256-4 · Cited by 112
“…et al. 2002); require enormous investments of time, money, and expertise (e.g., Murray 1999); target a highly specific set of knowledge (e.g., Anderson et al. 1985); and/or necessitate considerable efforts on the behalf of overworked educators (e.g., Armbruster et al. 1987; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMartin, A. J., Durksen, T. L., Williamson, D., Kiss, J., & Ginns, P. (2016) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21332 · Cited by 106
Teachers: technology, change and resistance
Howard, S. K., & Mozejko, A. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.030 · Cited by 122
Stender, A., Schwichow, M., Zimmerman, C., & Härtig, H. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1504346 · Cited by 122
“Therefore, unguided inquiry learning settings are unlikely to be effective because they ignore the limitations of working memory and executive control (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundHatchuel, A., Masson, P. L., & Weil, B. (2011) · Artificial intelligence for engineering design analysis and manufacturing · doi:10.1017/s089006041000048x · Cited by 106
“This process combines the advantages of classical PBL (collective experience of ventures into the unknown, motivation, real-life or quasi real-life situations, etc.) and the advantages of a theoretical approach (offering an integrated framework, supporting the discovery of complex and nonintuitive reasoning, avoiding…”
BackgroundInfluentialLatifi, S., Noroozi, O., & Talaee, E. (2023) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2020.1799032 · Cited by 107
“Scientific research has shown that worked examples can facilitate problem solving processes (Kirschner et al., 2006) and the acquisition of domain-specific knowledge (Kyun et al., 2013) by reducing extraneous cognitive load which in turn lead to better learning outcomes (Sweller et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMcLaren, B. M., van Gog, T., Ganoe, C. H., Karabinos, M., & Yaron, D. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.038 · Cited by 117
“…learners (i.e., erroneous examples and tutored problems) is interesting in light of the assistance dilemma (Koedinger & Aleven, 2007) and debates about direct instruction (e.g., Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kapur & Rummel, 2012; Kirschner et al., 2006; Schmidt et al., 2007; Tobias & Duffy, 2009).”
BackgroundNäykki, P., Isohätälä, J., Järvelä, S., Pöysä‐Tarhonen, J., & Häkkinen, P. (2017) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-017-9259-5 · Cited by 118
An Open Repository and analysis tools for fine-grained, longitudinal learner data.
Koedinger, K. R., Cunningham, K., Skogsholm, A., & Leber, B. (2008) · Educational Data Mining · Cited by 108
Current Trends in Developing Medical Students' Critical Thinking Abilities
Harasym, P. H., Tsai, T., & Hemmati, P. (2008) · The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1607-551x(08)70131-1 · Cited by 106
“providing the broad picture first) [18].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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