Hand-Rearing, Release and Survival of African Penguin Chicks Abandoned Before Independence by Moulting Parents

May combine two claims.

Movement of juvenile African penguins is extensive and breeding at non-natal colonies occurs.

“Movement of juvenile penguins is extensive [30] and breeding at non-natal colonies occurs [6], [26].”

• cites [30] RB Sherley, 2013, The initial journey of an endangered penguin: implications for seabird conservation, Endanger Species Res sourceSupported
• cites [6] RB Sherley, 2014, Age-specific survival and movement among major African Penguin <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> colonies, Ibis sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [26] PA Whittington, 2005, Patterns of immigration to and emigration from breeding colonies by African penguins, Afr J Mar Sci sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Chicks hand-reared after catastrophic oil spills had survival and recruitment rates analogous to naturally-reared cohorts and reproduced successfully once they entered the breeding population.

“Chicks hand-reared after catastrophic oil spills had survival and recruitment rates analogous to naturally-reared cohorts [17], [18] and reproduced successfully once they entered the breeding population [17].”

• cites [17] PJ Barham, 2008, The efficacy of hand-rearing penguin chicks: evidence from African Penguins (<italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic>) orphaned in the Treasure oil spill in 2000, Bird Conserv Int sourceSupported
• cites [18] LG Underhill, 1999, Mortality and survival of African penguins <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> involved in the <italic>Apollo Sea</italic> oil spill: an evaluation of rehabilitation efforts, Ibis sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Goodness-of-fit testing using U-CARE indicated little evidence for overdispersion (ĉ = 1.11).

“We implemented our multistate models in a hidden Markov models framework [33] using program E-SURGE v1.9.0 [34] and tested for goodness-of-fit using U-CARE v2.2.3, which indicated little evidence for overdispersion (ĉ = 1.11).”

• cites [33] O Gimenez, 2012, Estimating demographic parameters using hidden process dynamic models, Theor Popul Biol sourceSupported
• cites [34] Choquet R, Rouan L, Pradel R (2009) Program E-Surge: A software application for fitting multievent models. In: Thomson DL, Cooch EG, Conroy MJ, editors. Modeling Demographic Processes In Marked Populations. Boston: Springer US. 845–865. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78151-8. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the Western Cape, penguins breed from February to September and predominately moult between September and January, once chicks have fledged.

“In the Western Cape, penguins breed from February to September [23] and predominately moult between September and January, once chicks have fledged [24].”

• cites [23] RJM Crawford, 1995, Trends of African penguin <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> populations in the 20th century, S Afr J Mar Sci sourcePartly supported

  Citation [24] is attached to the moulting claim, not the February–September breeding claim. The section “Seasonal pattern of breeding off western South Africa” (page unavailable) says most birds at Robben Island moult in December, supporting a peak within the stated period. It does not establish a September–January moulting period across the Western Cape or say that moulting occurs once chicks have fledged. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [24] Crawford RJM, Hemming M, Kemper J, Klages NTW, Randall R, <etal>et al</etal>.. (2006) Molt of the African penguin, <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> in relation to its breeding season and food availability. Acta Zool Sin 52 (Supp.): 444–447.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The approach of hand- or captive-rearing chicks has been used successfully in combination with translocation in the conservation of at least 11 seabird species worldwide.

“The approach has been used successfully in combination with translocation in the conservation of at least 11 seabird species worldwide [39]–[42].”

• cites [39] CM Miskelly, 2009, Translocations of eight species of burrow-nesting seabirds (genera <italic>Pterodroma</italic>, <italic>Pelecanoides</italic>, <italic>Pachyptila</italic> and <italic>Puffinus</italic>: Family Procellariidae), Biol Conserv sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [40] T Deguchi, 2011, Translocation and hand-rearing techniques for establishing a colony of threatened albatross, Bird Conserv Int sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract (page unavailable) reports successful translocation and hand-rearing of chicks from three albatross species, supporting this paper as an example of the approach. Neither it nor the Introduction establishes the cited sentence’s worldwide total of at least 11 seabird species. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [41] N Carlile, 2012, Establishment of a new, secure colony of Endangered Bermuda Petrel <italic>Pterodroma cahow</italic> by translocation of near-fledged nestlings, Bird Conserv Int sourcePartly supported

  The Feeding of translocated nestlings section describes feeding Bermuda Petrel chicks after translocation, and the Discussion reports successful fledging in this project and other seabird translocations. The Discussion mentions eight other translocations, but counts projects rather than distinct species; it does not establish successful hand- or captive-rearing with translocation for at least 11 seabird species worldwide. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [42] HP Jones, 2012, A review of the world&apos;s active seabird restoration projects, J Wildl Manage sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Abandonments could have been mediated either by poor food availability close to the colonies during chick-rearing, poor availability of adult fish during the preceding pre-breeding period, or a combination of the two.

“such that abandonments could have been mediated either by poor food availability close to the colonies during chick-rearing, poor availability of adult fish during the preceding pre-breeding period, or a combination of the two [8].”

• cites [8] RB Sherley, 2013, Influence of local and regional prey availability on breeding performance of African penguins <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic>, Mar Ecol Prog Ser sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) proposes that pre-breeding condition, which may depend on adult fish stocks, interacts with prey availability near the colony to affect breeding success and chick provisioning. It does not specifically identify these factors as causes of abandonments, so that outcome is not established by this paper. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The African penguin has been considered a promising candidate for reinforcement and conservation translocation.

“the species has been considered a promising candidate for reinforcement and conservation translocation [17].”

• cites [17] PJ Barham, 2008, The efficacy of hand-rearing penguin chicks: evidence from African Penguins (<italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic>) orphaned in the Treasure oil spill in 2000, Bird Conserv Int sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

During good years, African penguins can successfully rear two broods in a season.

“During good years, African penguins can successfully rear two broods in a season”

• cites [8] RB Sherley, 2013, Influence of local and regional prey availability on breeding performance of African penguins <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic>, Mar Ecol Prog Ser sourceCould not verify

  The Fledging success and fledging periods section (page unavailable) distinguishes one-chick from two-chick broods within a breeding attempt. The Discussion (page unavailable) addresses food availability and chick survival, but neither passage establishes that a pair can rear two separate broods in one season; a search for multiple broods and second breeding attempts found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.77)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [11] Sherley RB (2010) Factors influencing the demography of Endangered seabirds at Robben Island, South Africa. PhD thesis. Bristol: University of Bristol. 237 p.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In 2006, 766 hand-reared African penguin chicks were released, representing 91% of admissions.

“Of those admitted, 91% and 73% respectively were released into the wild.”

• Also stated in: § Release, survival and recruitment rates · plain

  “In 2006, 766 hand-reared penguins were released (91% of admissions) and in 2007, 351 chicks were released (73% of admissions, Table S3).”

May combine two claims.

In 2006 and 2007 respectively, 6% and 20% of chicks from Dyer Island were small to medium downy chicks; for Stony Point the corresponding values were 6% and 2%; none from Robben Island were small to medium downy chicks.

“In 2006 and 2007 respectively, 6% and 20% of chicks from Dyer Island were small to medium downy chicks, for Stony Point the corresponding values were 6% and 2%, while none of the birds from Robben Island were small to medium downy chicks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Both flies and mosquitoes were abundant during the chick-rearing period; the netting surrounding the centre at the time was inadequate to exclude insects.

“Both flies and mosquitoes were abundant during the chick-rearing period; the netting surrounding the centre at the time was inadequate to exclude insects.”

May combine two claims.

Lesions usually healed after three weeks; in severe cases, scarring caused a smaller eye opening.

“The lesions usually healed after three weeks; in severe cases, scarring caused a smaller eye opening.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Fungal airsacculitis and pneumonia caused 7% of deaths in 2006 and 2% in 2007.

“Fungal airsacculitis and pneumonia caused 7% of deaths in 2006 and 2% in 2007 (Table 3).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 85% of dead birds that received post-mortem examination are representative of all dead chicks for cause-of-death distribution.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Macroscopic diagnosis alone is sufficient to accurately classify causes of death.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lesions occurred around the eyes, the ceres, the beak, inside the mouth and occasionally on the feet of the chicks that contracted avian pox.

“Lesions occurred around the eyes, the ceres, the beak, inside the mouth and occasionally on the feet of the chicks that contracted the disease [36].”

• cites [36] Hansen W (1999) Avian pox. In: Friend M, Franson JC, editors. Field manual of wildlife diseases: general field procedures and diseases of birds. Washington DC: United States Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division. 163–169.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

The quote only partly states this claim.

Those released that had been positive for avian malaria took 20% longer in 2006 and 95% longer in 2007 than all chicks to reach conditions for release.

“Those that were released took 20% longer in 2006 and 95% longer in 2007 than all chicks to reach the conditions for release.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One bird was euthanized due to blindness caused by avian pox.

“One bird was euthanized due to blindness caused by avian pox (Table 3).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 85% of dead birds that received post-mortem examination are representative of all dead chicks for cause-of-death distribution.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Macroscopic diagnosis alone is sufficient to accurately classify causes of death.

May combine two claims.

Of the breeding hand-reared African penguins, six were at Dyer Island, three at Robben Island, two at Stony Point and one at Dassen Island.

“Of the breeding birds, six were at Dyer Island, three were at Robben Island, two at Stony Point and one at Dassen Island (Table S5).”

May combine two claims.

A feather-loss disorder occurred in both years, delaying hand-rearing significantly, but did not cause any mortality.

“A feather-loss disorder also occurred in both years, delaying hand-rearing significantly, but did not cause any mortality.”

May combine two claims.

Encounter rates were 0.01±0.01 in 2007, 0.06±0.02 in 2008, increased to 0.31±0.11 in 2011, before falling back in 2012.

“Encounter rates were low initially at 0.01±0.01 (0.00–0.06) in 2007 and 0.06±0.02 (0.03–0.12) in 2008, but increased to 0.31±0.11 (0.14–0.55) in 2011, before falling back in 2012 (Figure 2).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The central resighting database accurately records all resightings of banded penguins.

May combine two claims.

Of those released, 511 were marked with flipper bands from the 2006 cohort and 190 from the 2007 cohort.

“Of those released, 511 were marked with flipper bands from the 2006 cohort and 190 from the 2007 cohort (Table S3).”

May combine two claims.

In 2007, 351 hand-reared African penguin chicks were released, representing 73% of admissions.

“Of those admitted, 91% and 73% respectively were released into the wild.”

• Also stated in: § Release, survival and recruitment rates · plain

  “In 2006, 766 hand-reared penguins were released (91% of admissions) and in 2007, 351 chicks were released (73% of admissions, Table S3).”

May combine two claims.

The chicks were reared in 2006 for a mean of 44 days (range 11-127) for those released and 36 days (range 0-88) for those that died.

“The chicks were reared in 2006 for a mean of 44 days (range: 11–127 days) for those that were released and 36 days (range: 0–88 days) for those that died.”

May combine two claims.

In 2007 rearing lasted a mean of 48 days (range 15-130) for those released and 50 days (0-158) for those that died.

“In 2007 rearing lasted a mean of 48 days (range: 15–130 days) for those released and 50 days (0–158 days) for those that died (Table 2 and 3).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One bird was euthanased each year due to bumblefoot.

“One bird was euthanased each year due to bumblefoot (Table 3).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 85% of dead birds that received post-mortem examination are representative of all dead chicks for cause-of-death distribution.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Macroscopic diagnosis alone is sufficient to accurately classify causes of death.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The symptoms of avian pox seen in African penguins are mild to moderate.

“and the symptoms seen in African penguins are mild to moderate”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Half of the birds breeding in this study returned to their natal site.

“and half of the birds breeding in this study returned to their natal site.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pododermatitis in hand-reared chicks generally improved once the birds were swimming and spending less time standing.

“The condition generally improved once the birds were swimming and spending less time standing”

May combine two claims.

Juvenile survival of hand-reared abandoned chicks was towards the upper end of estimates for both juvenile (0.06-0.52) and adult (0.46-0.77) survival at these colonies during the study period.

“and was towards the upper end of estimates for both juvenile (0.06–0.52) and adult (0.46–0.77) survival at these colonies during our study period [3], [6].”

• cites [3] RJM Crawford, 2011, Collapse of South Africa&apos;s penguins in the early 21st century, Afr J Mar Sci sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [6] RB Sherley, 2014, Age-specific survival and movement among major African Penguin <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> colonies, Ibis sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The incidence of avian malaria at the facility has been dramatically reduced since the erection of new shade cloth netting in 2008.

“The incidence of avian malaria at the facility has been dramatically reduced since the erection of new shade cloth netting in 2008 (SANCCOB unpubl. data).”

• cites SANCCOB unpubl. dataNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The hand-reared chicks were susceptible to various conditions, in part due to being in captivity (pododermatitis), at high-density (airsacculitis and pneumonia, avian pox) and being exposed to vectors transmitting disease (avian pox, avian malaria).

“The hand-reared chicks were susceptible to various conditions, in part due to being in captivity (pododermatitis), at high-density (airsacculitis and pneumonia, avian pox) and being exposed to vectors transmitting disease (avian pox, avian malaria).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Due to sparse resighting data, the authors did not attempt to estimate time-dependent survival or separate survival parameters for the two release cohorts.

“Due to sparse resighting data, we did not attempt to estimate time-dependent survival, or to estimate separate survival parameters for the two release cohorts.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two release cohorts (2006 and 2007) have similar survival and encounter probabilities, allowing pooled estimation.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

When birds died, the carcase was refrigerated immediately and post-mortem examination conducted on c. 85% of cases within four days.

“When birds died, the carcase was refrigerated immediately and post-mortem examination conducted on c. 85% of cases within four days.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 85% of dead birds that received post-mortem examination are representative of all dead chicks for cause-of-death distribution.

May combine two claims.

At Dyer Island, most adults moult from October to December and do so in groups within the breeding colony.

“At Dyer Island, most adults moult from October to December [24] and do so in in groups within the breeding colony (LJW pers. obs.).”

• cites [24] Crawford RJM, Hemming M, Kemper J, Klages NTW, Randall R, <etal>et al</etal>.. (2006) Molt of the African penguin, <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> in relation to its breeding season and food availability. Acta Zool Sin 52 (Supp.): 444–447.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The post-release juvenile and adult survival rates of hand-reared abandoned African penguin chicks were similar to those of African penguin chicks reared after oil spills and to recent survival rates recorded for naturally-reared birds.

“Post-release juvenile (0.32, s.e. = 0.08) and adult (0.76, s.e. = 0.10) survival rates were similar to African penguin chicks reared after oil spills and to recent survival rates recorded for naturally-reared birds.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The naturally-reared and oil-spill-reared comparison groups are similar enough to the hand-reared abandoned chicks for their survival rates to be compared.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most other diagnoses were determined from macroscopic pathology lesions only.

“Most other diagnoses were determined from macroscopic pathology lesions only.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Macroscopic diagnosis alone is sufficient to accurately classify causes of death.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Fungal airsacculitis and pneumonia was differentiated from bacterial cases on the presence of fungal plaques and mats and was not specifically identified to species level.

“Fungal airsacculitis and pneumonia was differentiated from bacterial cases on the presence of fungal plaques and mats and was not specifically identified to species level.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Macroscopic diagnosis alone is sufficient to accurately classify causes of death.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Histopathology and other tests were not routinely performed, except in cases where the cause of death could not otherwise be determined.

“Histopathology and other tests were not routinely performed, except in cases where the cause of death could not otherwise be determined.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Macroscopic diagnosis alone is sufficient to accurately classify causes of death.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The use of hand- or captive-reared chicks to reinforce or restore threatened bird populations is now relatively widespread.

“The use of hand- or captive-reared chicks to reinforce or restore threatened bird populations is now relatively widespread [38].”

• cites [38] Jones CG, Merton DV (2012) A tale of two islands: the rescue and recovery of Endemic birds in New Zealand and Mauritius. In: Ewen J, Armstrong D, Parker K, Seddon P, editors. Reintroduction Biology: Integrating Science and Management. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. 33–72. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Moulting African penguins are without adequate waterproofing and must fast for approximately 21 days.

“However, moulting penguins are without adequate waterproofing and must fast for c.21 days [20]; unfledged chicks would thus starve in the nest [21].”

• cites [20] J Cooper, 1978, Moult of the black-footed penguin <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic>, Int Zoo Yearb sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

No specific aetiological diagnosis was made for bacterial airsacculitis and pneumonia.

“No specific aetiological diagnosis was made.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Macroscopic diagnosis alone is sufficient to accurately classify causes of death.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Blood samples were taken by a state registered veterinarian to ensure that the birds were fit to be released and were not carrying any diseases that might be introduced to the wild population.

“blood samples were taken by a state registered veterinarian to ensure that the birds were fit to be released and were not carrying any diseases that might be introduced to the wild population.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

On live birds, conditions such as airsacculitis and pneumonia, avian pox, bumblefoot and feather-loss disorder were diagnosed based on clinical symptoms and lesions only.

“On live birds, conditions such as airsacculitis and pneumonia, avian pox, bumblefoot and feather-loss disorder were diagnosed based on clinical symptoms and lesions only.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Macroscopic diagnosis alone is sufficient to accurately classify causes of death.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The African penguin is classified as Endangered following a decrease in the global population of more than 70% between 2001 and 2013.

“The African penguin Spheniscus demersus is ‘Endangered’ following a decrease in the global population of >70% between 2001 and 2013 [3], [4].”

• cites [3] RJM Crawford, 2011, Collapse of South Africa&apos;s penguins in the early 21st century, Afr J Mar Sci sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [4] Crawford RJM, Makhado AB, Waller LJ, Whittington PA (2014) Winners and losers – response to recent environmental change by South African seabirds that compete with purse-seine fisheries for food. Ostrich: doi: 10.2989/00306525.2014.955141. doi:10.2989/00306525.2014.955141. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Moult must be undertaken annually and, once initiated, cannot be abandoned prematurely.

“It must be undertaken annually and, once initiated, cannot be abandoned prematurely [47], [48].”

• cites [47] Payne R (1972) Mechanisms and control of molt. In: Farner DC, King JR, editors. Avian Biology Vol. 2. New York and London: Academic Press. 103–155. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [48] Randall RM (1989) Jackass penguins. In: Payne AIL, Crawford RJM, van Dalsen AP, editors. Oceans of Life of Southern Africa. Cape Town: Vlaeberg. 244–256.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Conditions for breeding penguins at Dyer Island in recent years were apparently poor.

“and apparently poor conditions for breeding penguins at Dyer Island in recent years [12], [51]”

• cites [12] Waller LJ (2011) The African penguin <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic>: conservation and management issues. PhD thesis. Cape Town: University of Cape Town. 290 p.Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites [51] K Ludynia, 2014, Processes influencing the population dynamics and conservation of African penguins on Dyer Island, South Africa, Afr J Mar Sci sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Plans have been developed to use conservation translocations to establish new breeding colonies in areas of higher prey availability along the South African coast.

“plans have been developed to use conservation translocations to establish new breeding colonies in areas of higher prey availability along the South African coast [52].”

• cites [52] C Schwitzer, 2013, The African Penguin Chick Bolstering Project: a One Plan approach to integrated species conservation, WAZA MagNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Infections of avian malaria are an ongoing concern at SANCCOB.

“Infections of avian malaria are an ongoing concern at SANCCOB [16].”

• cites [16] NJ Parsons, 2005, Oiled and injured African penguins <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> and other seabirds admitted for rehabilitation in the Western Cape, South Africa, 2001 and 2002, Afr J Mar Sci sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Prolonged hand-feeding of nestlings can reduce fledging success in some seabirds.

“Although prolonged hand-feeding of nestlings can reduce fledging success in some seabirds [44]”

• cites [44] CM Miskelly, 2004, Establishment of a colony of common diving petrels (<italic>Pelecanoides urinatrix</italic>) by chick transfers and acoustic attraction, Emu sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Outbreaks of avian pox can occur in the wild dependent on vector occurrence.

“although outbreaks can occur in the wild dependent on vector occurrence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Fungal airsacculitis and pneumonia occasionally causes deaths in wild African penguin chicks.

“Fungal airsacculitis and pneumonia (most likely to be caused by Aspergillus sp.) occasionally causes deaths in wild African penguin chicks (SANCCOB unpubl. data)”

• cites SANCCOB unpubl. dataNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Avian malaria is present at a low prevalence in wild African penguins.

“Avian malaria is present at a low prevalence in wild African penguins [56], [57]”

• cites [56] J-J Brossy, 1992, Malaria in wild and captive jackass penguins <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> along the southern African Coast, Ostrich sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [57] TK Graczyk, 1995, Detection of avian Malaria infections in wild and captive penguins, J Helminthol Soc WashingtNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Fungal airsacculitis and pneumonia is likely to be more widespread than reported.

“and is likely to be more widespread than reported.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Little penguins Eudyptula minor have been successfully translocated by simply keeping them overnight at a release site in artificial nest boxes.

“as little penguins Eudyptula minor have been successfully translocated by simply keeping them overnight at a release site in artificial nest boxes (N. Carlile, pers. comm.).”

• cites N. Carlile, pers. comm.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

African penguins exhibit some natal philopatry.

“African penguins exhibit some natal philopatry [26]”

• cites [26] PA Whittington, 2005, Patterns of immigration to and emigration from breeding colonies by African penguins, Afr J Mar Sci sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The breeding season of African penguins is synchronised to the availability of fish in the vicinity of the colonies in winter.

“while the breeding season is synchronised to the availability of fish in the vicinity of the colonies in winter [50].”

• cites [50] RJM Crawford, 2006, The influence of food availability on breeding success of African penguins <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> at Robben Island, South Africa, Biol Conserv sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The severity of avian pox varies between species.

“The severity of avian pox varies between species [36], [54]”

• cites [36] Hansen W (1999) Avian pox. In: Friend M, Franson JC, editors. Field manual of wildlife diseases: general field procedures and diseases of birds. Washington DC: United States Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division. 163–169.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [54] Ritchie B, Harrison G, Harrison L (1994) Avian medicine: principles and application. Lake Worth, Florida: Wingers Publishing Inc.Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The possibility exists of spreading a pathogenic species of avian malaria from rehabilitated birds into the wild population.

“although the possibility exists of spreading a pathogenic species from rehabilitated birds into the wild population [29].”

• cites [29] KC Grim, 2003, <italic>Plasmodium juxtanucleare</italic> associated with mortality in black-footed penguins (<italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic>) admitted to a rehabilitation center, J Zoo Wildl Med sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The situation for African penguin has continued to deteriorate on the West Coast.

“As the situation for African penguin has continued to deteriorate on the West Coast [3], [6]”

• cites [3] RJM Crawford, 2011, Collapse of South Africa&apos;s penguins in the early 21st century, Afr J Mar Sci sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [6] RB Sherley, 2014, Age-specific survival and movement among major African Penguin <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> colonies, Ibis sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Long-lived birds can alter their reproductive performance according to their body condition and the needs of their offspring, choosing not to breed or to abandon a breeding attempt in order to safeguard their own survival.

“Long-lived birds can alter their reproductive performance according to their body condition and the needs of their offspring [46], choosing not to breed or to abandon a breeding attempt in order to safeguard their own survival [5].”

• cites [46] KE Erikstad, 1998, On the cost of reproduction in long-lived birds: the influence of environmental variability, Ecology sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [5] RJM Crawford, 2008, Influences of the abundance and distribution of prey on African penguins <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> off western South Africa, Afr J Mar Sci sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mortality of Magellanic penguin S. magellanicus chicks from avian pox has occurred.

“although mortality of Magellanic penguin S. magellanicus chicks has occurred [55].”

• cites [55] OJ Kane, 2012, Avian pox in Magellanic penguins (<italic>Spheniscus magellanicus</italic>), J Wildl Dis sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The Spheniscidae may represent good candidate species for restoration or reinforcement.

“even though the Spheniscidae may represent good candidates species.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Abandoned chicks are an obvious source of birds for conservation translocation to establish new breeding colonies.

“Our results suggest abandoned chicks as an obvious source of birds for such an endeavour”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Return rates to translocation sites might well be higher if those sites can be placed in areas perceived to be of high habitat quality or prey availability.

“As such, return rates to translocation sites might well be higher if those sites can be placed in areas perceived to be of high habitat quality or prey availability [53].”

• cites [53] D Oro, 2011, Lessons from a failed translocation program with a seabird species: Determinants of success and conservation value, Biol Conserv sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Juvenile African penguins may emigrate to non-natal colonies if the food environment is heterogeneous.

“This was despite evidence that juvenile African penguins may emigrate to non-natal colonies if the food environment is heterogeneous [3], [5]”

• cites [3] RJM Crawford, 2011, Collapse of South Africa&apos;s penguins in the early 21st century, Afr J Mar Sci sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [5] RJM Crawford, 2008, Influences of the abundance and distribution of prey on African penguins <italic>Spheniscus demersus</italic> off western South Africa, Afr J Mar Sci sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All birds undergo basic disease screening and veterinary evaluation before release in order to reduce any disease introduction risk.

“All birds undergo basic disease screening and veterinary evaluation before release in order to reduce any disease introduction risk.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Basic disease screening and veterinary evaluation before release reduces the risk of disease introduction.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One missing element in the strategy for chick removal in this study was quantitative criteria to decide whether individual chicks were in sufficiently poor condition to conclude that they had been abandoned.

“Finally, one missing element in the strategy for chick removal in this study was quantitative criteria to decide whether individual chicks were in sufficiently poor condition to conclude that they had been abandoned.”