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Cited by 0Language Development and DisordersNeurobiology of Language and BilingualismReading and Literacy Development

Tracking Acquisition of Language in Kids (TALK) study protocol: A longitudinal investigation of infants at high vs. low risk for atypical speech and language development

Open access
Goble, Gina, Hennessy, Victoria, Cheng, Tzu-Han Zoe, Rodda, Amy, Taulu, Samu, Gordon, Reyna L., Zhao, T. Christina·2026·PLOS One
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335596PMC PMC12851461

Published version of a preprint

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Abstract

The sensitive period for phonetic learning, normally considered to be between 6–12 months of age, has been demonstrated as one of the earliest milestones for language development. Infant speech processing towards the end of the sensitive period has been shown to predict individual language development trajectories up to school entry and most recently, risk of speech and language disorders, suggesting its potential clinical relevance. Yet, this literature is largely limited to typically developing infants with regard to their family histories of speech and language delays or disorders. The current study begins to fill the gap by investigating associations between neural markers of the sensitive period , family history risk factors, and language outcomes by gathering extensive information from a large group of infants. Specifically, family information includes an extensive parental survey of family background and clinical history, a comprehensive assessment of language skills for one older sibling by a research speech-language pathologist (SLP), and a daylong audio recording in infants’ homes for assessing their language environment. The study design focuses on comparing neural predictors of language development in infants with or without first-degree family history of speech and language delays and disorders (i.e., High vs. Low-Risk infants). Infants’ neural speech processing is measured three times using Magnetoencephalography at 6 months, 12 months, and 14 months of age. Infants’ language development is tracked until school entry by both parental surveys and the same comprehensive assessment protocol with a research SLP. This protocol documents the study design and methodological details for data collection and preprocessing. This study will allow our research team to start tackling important questions regarding early predictors of speech and language delays and disorders (e.g., late-talking, Developmental Language Disorder) and contribute significant value to the broader field.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This protocol describes a longitudinal study comparing infants at high vs. low risk for atypical speech and language development, using MEG neural measures, family history, home language environment, and behavioral language tracking. No results are reported yet; the paper documents the design, recruitment status, and planned analyses.

Key findings

  • As of July 3rd, 2025, 60 families were enrolled; 29 infants were female, mean infant age at enrollment was 4.87 months (SD = 0.33, range = 4.24–5.59 mo), and biological siblings’ mean age was 4.64 years (SD = 1.81, range = 2.97–10.07 yr).
  • The study aimed for a minimum of 26 participants per group (total minimum N = 52), based on an a priori power analysis using an effect size of Cohen’s d = 0.706 to detect between-group effects at α = 0.05 with power above 0.80.
  • The sample was predominantly White (86.67%), with median household income of $200,000 (M = $234,158, SD = $149,686, range = $10,000–$750,000); 5% were of Hispanic, Latinx, or Spanish origin.
  • The paper states that no data analysis has been performed and no results have been generated; data collection is expected to continue through 2031, with CDI data collection complete by September 2nd, 2027.

Methods

  • Longitudinal infant-sibling protocol enrolling infants between 4.5 and 6 months of age who have at least one biological sibling aged 3 or older; exclusion criteria include immediate family major cognitive disorders, autism, congenital hearing impairments, systematic use of more than one language in the household, and known major health issues, frequent ear infections, or hearing loss.
  • Measures include parental questionnaires, older sibling language/behavioral assessment by a research SLP, MEG at 6, 12, and 14 months targeting MMR and cABR/FFR, a daylong LENA home audio recording around 9 months, MacArthur-Bates CDIs at 18, 21, 24, 27, and 30 months, and a comprehensive language assessment at 6 years of age.
  • Planned analyses include group-level comparisons between High- and Low-Risk infants using linear mixed-effect models with group as a fixed effect, plus regression-based and machine-learning approaches for individual differences and whole spatiotemporal patterns.

Limitations

  • The paper states limitations including attrition and missing data, labor-intensive manual preprocessing/coding, and the fact that automated LENA analysis has been shown not to correlate with human-generated analysis.
  • The paper states that the sample is smaller and less diverse, with recruitment requiring four in-person visits potentially biasing toward higher SES and White, middle-class families; the monolingual English requirement may also have reduced diversity.
  • Evident from the text: because the study is ongoing and no results have been generated, all findings about group differences and prediction remain planned rather than demonstrated.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0335596

Cites

67 of 67 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

31 of 56 cited sources checked · 16 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Learning outcomes from the sensitive period are reliable predictors of individual language skills later in life, such as vocabulary size and grammar skills.

    “Converging evidence suggests that the learning outcomes from this period are reliable predictors of individual language skills later in life, such as vocabulary size and grammar skills [1–3].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [1] PK Kuhl, 2008, Phonetic learning as a pathway to language: new data and native language magnet theory expanded (NLM-e), Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci source
    • cites [2] PK Kuhl, 2005, Early speech perception and later language development: implications for the “critical period”, LL&D source
    • cites [3] TC Zhao, 2022, Development of infants’ neural speech processing and its relation to later language skills: A MEG study, NeuroImage source
  • Premisecitation

    The majority of DLD cases in children are thought to remain unidentified.

    “Additionally, the majority of DLD cases in children are thought to remain unidentified, further indicating a great need to improve the early detection process by establishing risk factors [10,15–17].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [10] JB Tomblin, 1997, Prevalence of specific language impairment in kindergarten children, J Speech Lang Hear Res source

      The Results report that only 29% of parents of children diagnosed with SLI had been told their child had a speech or language problem; the Discussion likewise says a large proportion had not been identified through school or community systems. This supports the majority-unidentified point for the study’s kindergarten children with SLI, but does not establish it for DLD cases across children of all ages. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [15] PA Prelock, 2008, Speech-language impairment: how to identify the most common and least diagnosed disability of childhood, Medscape J Med

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [16] L Sices, 2003, How do primary care physicians identify young children with developmental delays? A national survey, J Dev Behav Pediatr source
    • cites [17] CE Walters, 2020, Automated phenotyping tool for identifying developmental language disorder cases in health systems data (APT-DLD): a new research algorithm for deployment in large-scale electronic health record systems, J Speech Lang Hear Res source
      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Children with language difficulties are more likely to experience other socio-emotional and behavioral difficulties, even in adolescence and adulthood.

    “Children with language difficulties are more likely to experience other socio-emotional and behavioral difficulties, even in adolescence and adulthood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [68] JH Beitchman, 1986, Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in children with speech and language disorders, J Am Acad Child Psychiatry source
    • cites [69] EB Brownlie, 2016, Childhood language disorder and social anxiety in early adulthood, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
    • cites [70] A Burnley, 2023, Understanding the prevalence and manifestation of anxiety and other socio-emotional and behavioural difficulties in children with Developmental Language Disorder, J Neurodev Disord source

      The Background and Discussion (page unavailable) say that children with developmental language disorder experience more socio-emotional and behavioural difficulties than typically developing peers, and the study found higher parent-reported rates. The paper discusses anxiety across childhood and mentions late adolescence, but it does not establish that the elevated range of difficulties persists into adulthood; its adulthood discussion concerns a potential risk, not an observed outcome in this group. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [71] NP van den Bedem, 2018, Depressive symptoms and emotion regulation strategies in children with and without developmental language disorder: a longitudinal study, Int J Lang Commun Disord source

      The Introduction reports elevated depressive symptoms in children with developmental language disorder, including during adolescence. The Discussion describes social difficulties in children and notes that depressive symptoms can increase again in young adulthood. The paper does not establish that the broader range of socio-emotional and behavioral difficulties remains more likely in adulthood. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    The more infant-directed speech in an infant's home environment is observed, the stronger their later language outcome.

    “The more infant-directed speech (IDS), characterized by more variable and increased vocal pitch, slower speech, and clearer articulation [27], in an infant’s home environment is observed, the stronger their later language outcome [28].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] N Ramírez-Esparza, 2014, Look who’s talking: speech style and social context in language input to infants are linked to concurrent and future speech development, Dev Sci source

      The Results section (page unavailable) reports that more parentese speech during one-on-one interactions at home was associated with greater word production at 24 months. It also says other social-interaction variables were unrelated to later word production. The claim omits the one-on-one condition, so the study does not establish the same association for infant-directed speech in general. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Close to half of the siblings of individuals with DLD (SLI) exhibit difficulties in language.

    “For example, close to half of the siblings of individuals with DLD (SLI) exhibit difficulties in language [21]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] ML Rice, 2009, Convergent genetic linkage and associations to language, speech and reading measures in families of probands with Specific Language Impairment, J Neurodev Disord source
  • May combine two claims. 20
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 35

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Children may begin to show language deficits as early as infancy, but DLD cannot be reliably diagnosed until age four.

    “Children may begin to show language deficits as early as infancy, but DLD cannot be reliably diagnosed until age four [14]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] A Sansavini, 2021, Developmental language disorder: early predictors, age for the diagnosis, and diagnostic tools. A scoping review, Brain Sci source

      The Results (section 3.2) describe early signs, including gesture production at 12 months and vocabulary at 15 months, that may predict later language difficulties. The Discussion (sections 4 and 4.3) suggests diagnosis around age four or between four and five, but leaves the status of children aged three to four unspecified; it does not establish that reliable diagnosis is impossible before four. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Infants' neural processing of speech towards the end of the sensitive period can predict expressive grammar skills at 6 years of age and risk of developing speech and language disorders.

    “a small preliminary study extended this research and demonstrated that infants’ neural processing of speech towards the end of the sensitive period could predict not only individual expressive grammar skills at 6 years of age, but also the risk of developing speech and language disorders [4].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] TC Zhao, 2021, Infants’ neural speech discrimination predicts individual differences in grammar ability at 6 years of age and their risk of developing speech-language disorders, Dev Cogn Neurosci source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These difficulties include anxiety, social phobia, ADHD, and depression.

    “These include anxiety, social phobia, ADHD, and depression [68–71]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [68] JH Beitchman, 1986, Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in children with speech and language disorders, J Am Acad Child Psychiatry source
    • cites [69] EB Brownlie, 2016, Childhood language disorder and social anxiety in early adulthood, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
    • cites [70] A Burnley, 2023, Understanding the prevalence and manifestation of anxiety and other socio-emotional and behavioural difficulties in children with Developmental Language Disorder, J Neurodev Disord source

      The Background reports elevated anxiety and depression among children with developmental language disorder, and the Discussion identifies social anxiety as a particular difficulty. The paper does not establish ADHD as one of the difficulties in this list; the ADHD mention found is in a reference about Prader–Willi syndrome. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [71] NP van den Bedem, 2018, Depressive symptoms and emotion regulation strategies in children with and without developmental language disorder: a longitudinal study, Int J Lang Commun Disord source

      The Results (Preliminary analyses; page unavailable) report higher depressive symptoms in children with developmental language disorder than in children without it. The paper does not establish the other listed difficulties—anxiety, social phobia, or ADHD—as findings about these children, so it supports only the depression part of the cited sentence. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    118 additional families completed a REDCap screening form but were not enrolled.

    “118 additional families completed a REDCap (Research Electronic Data Capture, [51,52]) screening form but were not enrolled.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [51] PA Harris, 2009, Research electronic data capture (REDCap)--a metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support, J Biomed Inform source
    • cites [52] PA Harris, 2019, The REDCap consortium: Building an international community of software platform partners, J Biomed Inform source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    MEG is a safe and non-invasive method of evaluating functional brain activity with high temporal and spatial resolution.

    “Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a safe and non-invasive method of evaluating functional brain activity with high temporal and spatial resolution [35].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] C Kao, 2019, Magnetic source imaging and infant MEG: current trends and technical advances, Brain Sci source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pointing ability at one year predicts language skills at 5 and 6 years of age, and this effect was mediated by comprehension of iconic gestures between 3-5 years.

    “Lüke et al. [25] observed that pointing ability at one year predicts language skills at 5 and 6 years of age, and this effect was mediated by comprehension of iconic gestures (e.g., opening and closing the extended index and middle finger to represent scissors) between 3–5 years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] C Lüke, 2020, Integrated communication system: gesture and language acquisition in typically developing children and children with LD and DLD, Front Psychol source

      The Results report that index-finger pointing at age 1 predicts later language skills, and that iconic-gesture comprehension at age 3 mediates its relation to grammar skills at ages 5 and 6. The claim overgeneralizes the mediation to language skills as a whole and places gesture comprehension across ages 3–5; the Results explicitly find no such mediation for lexical skills or sentence comprehension and identify age 3 as the mediator measurement. (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In 7- and 11-month-old infants, both language and music experience affected the frequency-following response (FFR), a component of cABR.

    “Critically, our most recent study examined the frequency-following response (FFR), a component of cABR that tracks the periodic portion of the sound, in 7- and 11-month-old infants and found that both language and music experience affected the FFR [45].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [45] TC Zhao, 2022, Language experience during the sensitive period narrows infants’ sensory encoding of lexical tones-Music intervention reverses it, Front Hum Neurosci source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Both research assistants who ran the MEG appointments completed 15-20 practice sessions with infants in an MEG simulator to learn techniques and best practices in infant neuroimaging studies, ensuring the success of data collection.

    “Additionally, both research assistants who ran the MEG appointments (first and second author) completed 15–20 practice sessions with infants in an MEG simulator to learn techniques and best practices in infant neuroimaging studies [56], ensuring the success of data collection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] MD Clarke, 2022, Infant brain imaging using magnetoencephalography: challenges, solutions, and best practices, Hum Brain Mapp source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mothers exhibiting post-partum depression tend to speak less to their infants overall, and their infant-directed speech is reduced in both quantity and quality.

    “For example, mothers exhibiting post-partum depression tend to speak less to their infants overall, and their infant-directed speech is reduced in both quantity and quality [31,32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [31] PS Kaplan, 2001, Role of clinical diagnosis and medication use in effects of maternal depression on infant-directed speech, Infancy source
    • cites [32] C Lam-Cassettari, 2020, Effect of maternal depression on infant-directed speech to prelinguistic infants: implications for language development, PLoS One source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The cABR characterizes the sensory encoding of the acoustic properties of complex sounds in the early stages/lower level of auditory processing.

    “Another neural process, namely, the complex auditory brainstem response (cABR) has received increased research interest in recent years as a measure that characterizes the sensory encoding of the acoustic properties of complex sounds (e.g., speech sounds) in the early stages/lower level of auditory processing [41].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] E Skoe, 2010, Auditory brain stem response to complex sounds: a tutorial, Ear Hear source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    For all MEG appointments, the study follows the best practices outlined by Clarke et al.

    “For all MEG appointments, we follow the best practices outlined by Clarke et al. [56].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Clarke et al. [56] MD Clarke, 2022, Infant brain imaging using magnetoencephalography: challenges, solutions, and best practices, Hum Brain Mapp source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    LENA recorders can generate reports about infants' language environments, but their automated analysis has been shown not to correlate with human generated analysis.

    “Additionally, while LENA recorders can generate reports about infants’ language environments, their automated analysis has been shown not to correlate with human generated analysis [72]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [72] N Ferjan Ramírez, 2021, Comparing automatic and manual measures of parent-infant conversational turns: a word of caution, Child Dev source

      The Abstract says LENA provides automatic measures of children’s language environments. The Results (page unavailable) find poor absolute agreement between automated and manual conversational-turn counts, but not an absence of correlation: correlations were low at 6 and 10 months and higher at 14–24 months. The claim confuses poor agreement with no correlation and extends a finding about conversational turns to automated analysis generally. (LLM, conf=0.91)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • Rests on an assumption: LENA software can process these recordings to compute a series of metrics to characterize the language input, including the number of words and conversational turns the infants experienced.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    We have enrolled 60 families in the study.

    “We have enrolled 60 families in the study, and recruitment for multiple measures will continue to take place over the next few years (through 2031).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Five families who were enrolled in the study chose to unenroll, all before the first in-person measure (older sibling language assessment).

    “Five families who were enrolled in the study chose to unenroll, all before the first in-person measure (older sibling language assessment).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Some families choose not to participate in the home recording measure due to privacy concerns.

    “However, some families choose not to participate due to privacy concerns.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Speech and language delay and disorders can affect 3-16 percent of children.

    “Speech and language delay and disorders can affect 3–16 percent of children [5].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Committee on the Evaluation of the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Disability Program for Children with Speech Disorders and Language Disorders, Board on the Health of Select Populations, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Institute of Medicine, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2016 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The sensitive period for phonetic learning is roughly between 6 and 12 months of age and is well established as one of the earliest milestones in typical language development.

    “The sensitive period for phonetic learning, roughly between 6–12 months of age, is well established as one of the earliest milestones in typical language development [1].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] PK Kuhl, 2008, Phonetic learning as a pathway to language: new data and native language magnet theory expanded (NLM-e), Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All data files are de-identified and are designated a participant ID.

    “All data files are de-identified and are designated a participant ID.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    To ensure accuracy, results from the standardized assessment were calculated independently by a trained research assistant in addition to the research SLP.

    “To ensure accuracy, results from the standardized assessment were calculated independently by a trained research assistant in addition to the research SLP.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Written consent was obtained from all participants for all study procedures.

    “Written consent was obtained from all participants for all study procedures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    One of six presentation sequences was randomly selected via RANDBETWEEN Excel function and tracked in a spreadsheet.

    “one of six presentation sequences (randomly selected via RANDBETWEEN Excel function and tracked in a spreadsheet) initiates sound presentation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    At least 20% of all language samples will be transcribed by two RAs and reliability between transcribers will be calculated using the 'RELY' function in CLAN.

    “At least 20% of all language samples will be transcribed by two RAs and reliability between transcribers will be calculated using the ‘RELY’ function in CLAN.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The day-long LENA recording allows characterization of input across various contexts.

    “Finally, the day-long recording allows characterization of input across various contexts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: LENA recorders are capable of recording up to 16 hours of audio in infants’ naturalistic sound environments.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The Test of Nonverbal Intelligence, Fourth Edition (TONI-4) is an assessment designed to measure nonverbal intelligence in a format that can accommodate those with limited linguistic and/or motor skills.

    “The Test of Nonverbal Intelligence, Fourth Edition (TONI-4; [55]), which is an assessment designed to measure nonverbal intelligence in a format that can accommodate those with limited linguistic and/or motor skills.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55] L Brown, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Due to technical difficulties, three language samples were collected over Zoom, leading to poorer audio quality and less natural interaction.

    “Due to technical difficulties, three language samples were collected over Zoom, leading to poorer audio quality and less natural interaction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Most existing cABR relies on recording from a single EEG sensor, which cannot provide spatial information in the cABR.

    “Yet, most existing cABR relies on recording from a single EEG sensor, which cannot provide such spatial information in the cABR, making it crucial to gather MEG-recorded FFR/cABR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The mismatch negativity/response (MMN/R) is one of the most widely studied neural signatures that indexes neural sensitivity to sound change.

    “First documented using the Electroencephalography (EEG), the mismatch negativity/response (MMN/R) is one of the most widely studied neural signatures that indexes neural sensitivity to sound change [36].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] R Näätänen, 2007, The mismatch negativity (MMN) in basic research of central auditory processing: a review, Clin Neurophysiol source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The PI conducts weekly meetings with key study personnel to ensure the timeliness and quality of data entry.

    “The PI conducts weekly meetings with key study personnel to ensure the timeliness and quality of data entry.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    After completing their transcription, the transcribers play the language sample video alongside it to check for any errors in areas such as segmentation, spelling, or speaker IDs.

    “After completing their transcription, the transcribers play the language sample video alongside it to check for any errors in areas such as segmentation, spelling, or speaker IDs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation, Third Edition (GFTA-3) is a standardized, norm-referenced single-word speech sound assessment.

    “The Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation, Third Edition (GFTA-3; [53]), which is a standardized, norm-referenced single-word speech sound assessment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] R Goldman, 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The proposed study aimed to include a minimum of 26 participants for each group (total minimum N = 52).

    “The proposed study aimed to include a minimum of 26 participants for each group (total minimum N = 52).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    If a discrepancy was found, the independent rater and SLP discussed it until an agreement was reached, and the final scores were entered into REDCap.

    “If a discrepancy was found, the independent rater and SLP discussed it until an agreement was reached, and the final scores were entered into REDCap.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Test scores were quality checked and entered into a secure REDCap database with limited access.

    “Tests scores were quality checked (see Data processing section) and entered into a secure REDCap database with limited access.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, Fifth Edition (CELF-5) is a standardized, norm-referenced test that assesses receptive and expressive aspects of language, including semantics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.

    “The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, Fifth Edition (CELF-5; [54]), a standardized, norm-referenced test that assesses receptive and expressive aspects of language, including semantics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] EH Wiig, 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lower usage of deictic gestures and conventional gestures as well as decreased vocabulary size at 15 months predicted risk for language impairment at 3 and 4.5 years of age.

    “Hsu & Iyer [24] found that lower usage of deictic gestures (pointing, reaching, showing, and giving) and conventional gestures (e.g., finger to lips for “hush”) as well as decreased vocabulary size at 15 months predicted risk for language impairment at 3 and 4.5 years of age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] H-C Hsu, 2016, Early gesture, early vocabulary, and risk of language impairment in preschoolers, Res Dev Disabil source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    LENA devices capture the full range of people who speak to and around infants (parents, grandparents, siblings, nannies, etc.).

    “For example, they capture the full range of people who speak to and around infants (parents, grandparents, siblings, nannies, etc.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: LENA recorders are capable of recording up to 16 hours of audio in infants’ naturalistic sound environments.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    LENA is a more subtle form of observation than lab visits, meaning participants are less likely to modify their natural behaviors due to bias.

    “Additionally, they are a more subtle form of observation than lab visits, meaning participants are less likely to modify their natural behaviors due to bias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: LENA recorders are capable of recording up to 16 hours of audio in infants’ naturalistic sound environments.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    KBIT-2 will allow this dataset to merge with previous datasets using the same protocol.

    “the KBIT will allow this dataset to merge with previous datasets using the same protocol.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    This study was approved by the University of Washington Institutional Review Board under STUDY00015376.

    “This study was approved by the University of Washington Institutional Review Board under STUDY00015376.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Prior to data collection, pilot MEG appointments were completed with infants from each age group to determine the feasibility of the MEG appointment protocol.

    “Prior to data collection, pilot MEG appointments were completed with infants from each age group to determine the feasibility of the MEG appointment protocol.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Manual analysis of LENA recordings is time-consuming due to the length of the recordings.

    “and manual analysis is time-consuming due to the length of the recordings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: LENA recorders are capable of recording up to 16 hours of audio in infants’ naturalistic sound environments.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Large amounts of data require preprocessing that may involve labor-intensive manual coding.

    “Large amounts of data require preprocessing that may involve labor-intensive manual coding.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Transcription of language samples is a slow process that requires multiple transcribers to ensure reliability.

    “For example, transcription of language samples is a slow process that requires multiple transcribers to ensure reliability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Attrition and missing data are largely unavoidable due to the longitudinal nature of the data.

    “While these are largely unavoidable due to the longitudinal nature of the data, great lengths are taken to minimize them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The extensive methods employed in this study allow for a deep investigation into each participating family but limit our sample size due to study scope.

    “The extensive methods employed in this study allow for a deep investigation into each participating family but limit our sample size due to study scope.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
45 of 45

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Existing research on the sensitive period has largely focused on typically developing infants without taking their family history of language disorders into account.

    “However, this line of existing research has largely focused on typically developing infants without taking their family history of language disorders into account.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Very few studies so far have examined early predictors of DLD in infancy, and most have focused on behavioral predictors.

    “Very few studies so far have examined early predictors of DLD in infancy, and most have focused on behavioral predictors.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Neural predictors in infancy are yet to be examined.

    “Despite this advantage, neural predictors in infancy are yet to be examined.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The current study is the first known large-scale effort to longitudinally compare infants who are at Low vs. High risks of developmental language disorder (DLD) starting from the sensitive period for phonetic learning (6–12 months), with well-researched neural and behavior methods.

    “The current study is the first known large-scale effort to longitudinally compare infants who are at Low vs. High risks of developmental language disorder (DLD) starting from the sensitive period for phonetic learning (6–12 months), with well-researched neural and behavior methods.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    LENA recorders are capable of recording up to 16 hours of audio in infants’ naturalistic sound environments.

    “The LENA recorders are small recording devices that infants wear in specialized vests and are capable of recording up to 16 hours of audio in infants’ naturalistic sound environments.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    LENA software can process these recordings to compute a series of metrics to characterize the language input, including the number of words and conversational turns the infants experienced.

    “In addition, LENA software can process these recordings to compute a series of metrics to characterize the language input, including the number of words and conversational turns the infants experienced.”
6 of 6

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Reported infant enrollment ages fall outside the stated range

    Minor

    The reported enrollment-age range includes 4.24 months, below the stated 4.5-month minimum, and 5.59 months, above the stated 5.5-month recruitment maximum.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. PA Prelock, 2008, Speech-language impairment: how to identify the most common and least diagnosed disability of childhood, Medscape J Med, 10, 136
  2. R Goldman, 2015, GFTA-3 - Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation - Third Edition
  3. EH Wiig, 2013, CELF-5 - Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals | Fifth Edition
  4. L Brown, 2010, TONI-4 - Test of Nonverbal Intelligence | Fourth Edition
  5. B MacWhinney, 2000, The CHILDES project: tools for analyzing talk

Related

Authors
Goble, G., Hennessy, V., Cheng, T.-H. Z., Rodda, A., Taulu, S., Gordon, R. L., & Zhao, T. C.
Affiliations
  • University of Washington (US)
  • University of California San Diego (US)
  • Vanderbilt University Medical Center (US)
Corresponding author
  • Goble, Gina
  • Zhao, T. Christina
ORCID
Venue
PLOS One
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2026-01-28
Volume
21
Issue
1
Pages
e0335596
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0335596
PMC
PMC12851461
OpenAlex
W7125945927
Semantic Scholar
fb1adafbcccc81adde4b34a752d1a688e2a61c24
Cited by
0
References
61
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders of the National Institutes of Health (R01DC020419)
  • National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders of the National Institutes of Health - TALK Initiative (R01DC020419-S1)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
Keywords
specific language impairment, late talking, home language environment, high-risk infants
MeSH terms
Female, Humans, Infant, Language Development, Language Development Disorders, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Risk Factors, Speech, Magnetoencephalography

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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