Methane emissions from cattle
Abstract
Increasing atmospheric concentrations of methane have led scientists to examine its sources of origin. Ruminant livestock can produce 250 to 500 L of methane per day. This level of production results in estimates of the contribution by cattle to global warming that may occur in the next 50 to 100 yr to be a little less than 2%. Many factors influence methane emissions from cattle and include the following: level of feed intake, type of carbohydrate in the diet, feed processing, addition of lipids or ionophores to the diet, and alterations in the ruminal microflora. Manipulation of these factors can reduce methane emissions from cattle. Many techniques exist to quantify methane emissions from individual or groups of animals. Enclosure techniques are precise but require trained animals and may limit animal movement. Isotopic and nonisotopic tracer techniques may also be used effectively. Prediction equations based on fermentation balance or feed characteristics have been used to estimate methane production. These equations are useful, but the assumptions and conditions that must be met for each equation limit their ability to accurately predict methane production. Methane production from groups of animals can be measured by mass balance, micrometeorological, or tracer methods. These techniques can measure methane emissions from animals in either indoor or outdoor enclosures. Use of these techniques and knowledge of the factors that impact methane production can result in the development of mitigation strategies to reduce methane losses by cattle. Implementation of these strategies should result in enhanced animal productivity and decreased contributions by cattle to the atmospheric methane budget.
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Production of CH4 deprives the host animal of carbon resources and results in loss of energy (13.3 Mcal/kg CH4), leading to poor feed efficiency.
“Production of CH4 also deprives the host animal of carbon resources and results in loss of energy (13.3 Mcal/kg CH4), leading to poor feed efficiency (9).”
From Phytogenic Additives Can Modulate Rumen Microbiome to Mediate Fermentation Kinetics and Methanogenesis Through Exploiting Diet–Microbe Interaction (2020) · cites this paper as [9]
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“However, this process causes a significant (6%) loss of dietary energy in the form of methane emission (14), which contributes to 13 to 19% of global greenhouse gas (16), and is one of the significant agricultural “causative sectors” contributing to global warming (13).”
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“The generation of methane by methanogenic archaea in the intestine of domestic ruminants lessens feed efficacy, as up to 12% of the gross energy ingested by the animal is lost this way (7).”
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“Enteric fermentation in ruminants and manure management facilities are known sources of CH4 [Johnson and Johnson, 1995; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2013a].”
van Zijderveld, S. M., Gerrits, W. J. J., Apajalahti, J., Newbold, J. R., Dijkstra, J., Leng, R. A., & Perdok, H. B. (2010) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2010-3281 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
“The methane resulting from methanogenesis represents a loss of dietary energy to the animal (Johnson and Johnson, 1995) and it is a significant greenhouse gas (Steinfeld et al., 2006).”
BackgroundLeahy, S. C., Kelly, W. J., Altermann, E., Ronimus, R. S., Yeoman, C. J., Pacheco, D. M., Li, D., Kong, Z., McTavish, S. M., Sang, C., et al. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008926 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
“Furthermore, as CH4 production in the rumen accounts for 2–12% of the ingested energy [6], it is predicted that reducing CH4 emissions from”
BackgroundDanielsson, R., Dicksved, J., Sun, L., Gonda, H. L., Müller, B., Schnürer, A., & Bertilsson, J. (2017) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.00226 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
“The CH4 produced is not used by the animal itself, but instead represents an energy loss (2–12% of gross energy) to the atmosphere, mainly by eructation, where it has a negative impact on the climate (Johnson and Johnson, 1995).”
BackgroundThe effect of a condensed tannin-containing forage on methane emission by goats1
Puchała, R., Min, B. R., Goetsch, A. L., & Sahlu, T. (2005) · Journal of Animal Science · doi:10.2527/2005.831182x · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Soil organic carbon sequestration and agricultural greenhouse gas emissions in the southeastern USA
Franzluebbers, A. J. (2005) · Soil and Tillage Research · doi:10.1016/j.still.2005.02.012 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
“6 ND ND Laws and Evans (1949) Renner TX Oxyaquic Hapludert 30 ND 91.9 65.1 ND ND Laws and Evans (1949) Renner TX Oxyaquic Hapludert 30 ND 56.7 54.9 ND ND Laws and Evans (1949) NC, SC, VA Typic Kanhapludult 25 34.7 33.4 ND 4 ND McCracken (1959) AL, NC, SC, VA Typic Kanhapludult 25 28.4 43.1 16.2 52 43 McCracken (1959)…”
BackgroundInfluentialSalami, S. A., Luciano, G., O’Grady, M. N., Biondi, L., Newbold, C. J., Kerry, J. P., & Priolo, A. (2019) · Animal Feed Science and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2019.02.006 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Hristov, A. N., Oh, J.-A., Lee, C., Meinen, R. J., Montes, F., OTT, T. L., Firkins, J. L., Rotz, A. C., Dell, C. J., Adesogan, C., et al. (2013) · Socio-Environmental Systems Modeling · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Development of equations for predicting methane emissions from ruminants
Ramin, M., & Huhtanen, P. J. (2013) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2012-6095 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
“Equations predicting CH4 production per unit of feed intake (GE or DM) are biologically more valid, and therefore it is recommended that CH4 production is predicted as intake (GEI or DMI) × production per unit (MJ of GE or kg of DMI) of intake.”
BackgroundInfluentialBeauchemin, K. A., McGinn, S. M., Benchaar, C., & Holtshausen, L. (2009) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2008-1903 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
“In agreement with Johnson and Johnson (1995), Woodward et al. (2006) did a stoichiometric calculation showing that the biohydrogenation of flaxseed oil would only reduce enteric CH4 by about 13 g/d (or about 5% of the CH4 emissions).”
InfluentialEvaluation of dietary strategies to reduce methane production in ruminants: A modelling approach
Benchaar, C., Pomar, C., & Chiquette, J. (2001) · Canadian Journal of Animal Science · doi:10.4141/a00-119 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
“D ow nl oa de d fr om c dn sc ie nc ep ub .c om b y 34 .2 19 .1 28 .1 90 o n 11 /1 7/ 21 Fo r pe rs on al u se o nl y. available to measure methane produced by digestive fermentation from ruminants (Johnson and Johnson 1995).”
Dietary mitigation of enteric methane from cattle.
Beauchemin, K. A., McAllister, T. A., & McGinn, S. M. (2009) · CABI Reviews · doi:10.1079/pavsnnr20094035 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Patra, A. K. (2013) · Livestock Science · doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2013.05.023 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
“Fats inhibit methanogenesis by reducing the metabolic activity and numbers of ruminal methanogens and protozoa, diminishing the quantity of feeds fermented in the rumen, and through biohydrogenation (an alternate hydrogen sink) of unsaturated fatty acids (Beauchemin et al., 2009; Johnson and Johnson, 1995).”
BackgroundDietary manipulation: a sustainable way to mitigate methane emissions from ruminants
Haque, M. N. (2018) · Journal of Animal Science and Technology · doi:10.1186/s40781-018-0175-7 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
“Furthermore, fats are not metabolised in the rumen [45] and therefore do not contribute to methanogenesis [34].”
BackgroundInfluentialPrevotella: A Key Player in Ruminal Metabolism
Betancur-Murillo, C. L., Aguilar-Marín, S. B., & Jovel, J. (2022) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms11010001 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
“Methane oxidation in the troposphere contributes to the formation of ozone and carbon dioxide and therefore boosts global warming [72,141].”
Two different bacterial community types are linked with the low-methane emission trait in sheep.
Kittelmann, S., Pinares-Patiño, C. S., Seedorf, H., Kirk, M. R., Ganesh, S., McEwan, J. C., & Janssen, P. H. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103171 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“This CH4 also represents a major loss of energy to the animal [1,2].”
BackgroundAspects of rumen microbiology central to mechanistic modelling of methane production in cattle
ELLIS, J. L., DIJKSTRA, J., KEBREAB, E., BANNINK, A., ODONGO, N. E., McBRIDE, B. W., & FRANCE, J. (2008) · The Journal of Agricultural Science · doi:10.1017/s0021859608007752 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
“Johnson & Johnson (1995) reported that CH4 production is roughly 0.02 of gross energy intake on high concentrate diets.”
BackgroundInfluentialInvited review: Sustainability of the US dairy industry
von Keyserlingk, M. A. G., Martin, N. P., Kebreab, E., Knowlton, K. F., Grant, R. J., Stephenson, M. W., Sniffen, C. J., Harner, J. P., Wright, A.-D. G., & Smith, S. (2013) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2012-6354 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
“To the animal, enteric methane represents an energy loss up to 12% of gross energy intake (Johnson and Johnson, 1995; Van Nevel and Demeyer, 1996), or 10 to 35 g/kg of DMI, and to the environment it represents a GHG 25 times more potent than CO 2 (IPCC, 2006).”
Microbiome analysis of dairy cows fed pasture or total mixed ration diets
de Menezes, A. B., Lewis, E., O’Donovan, M., O'Neill, B. F., CLIPSON, N. J. W., & Doyle, E. M. (2011) · FEMS Microbiology Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2011.01151.x · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Ungerfeld, E. M. (2015) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00037 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
“…production; [2H]recovery , percentage of metabolic hydrogen produced incorporated into methane, propionate, butyrate and dihydrogen; VFA, volatile fatty acids. inefficient to animal production, as it accounts for between 2 and 12% of ruminant gross energy intake (Johnson and Johnson, 1995).”
BackgroundPersistency of methane mitigation by dietary nitrate supplementation in dairy cows
van Zijderveld, S. M., Gerrits, W. J. J., Dijkstra, J., Newbold, J. R., Hulshof, R. B. A., & Perdok, H. B. (2011) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2011-4236 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Patra, A. K. (2012) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-011-2090-y · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Effects of Marine and Freshwater Macroalgae on In Vitro Total Gas and Methane Production
Machado, L., Magnusson, M. E., Paul, N. A., de Nys, R., & Tomkins, N. W. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085289 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
“Most of the CH4 produced in ruminants is exhaled and belched by the animal and represents a loss of up to 12% of gross energy intake [9].”
BackgroundAguerre, M. J., Wattiaux, M. A., Powell, J. M., Broderick, G. A., & Arndt, C. (2011) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2010-4011 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
“Enteric CH4 production in ruminants is a well-understood process that is closely related to the production of VFA in the rumen (Hungate, 1982; Johnson and Johnson, 1995).”
BackgroundPitesky, M. E., Stackhouse-Lawson, K. R., & Mitloehner, F. M. (2009) · Advances in agronomy · doi:10.1016/s0065-2113(09)03001-6 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
“Clearing the Air: Livestock’s Contribution to Climate Change 17 Mitigation through improved feed efficiency could reduce CH4 emissions and result in economic benefits to producers while improving global methane emissions ( Johnson and Johnson, 1995).”
InfluentialCampanaro, S., Treu, L., Rodriguez‐R, L. M., Kovalovszki, A., Ziels, R. M., Maus, I., Zhu, X., Kougias, P., Basile, A., Luo, G., et al. (2020) · Biotechnology for Biofuels · doi:10.1186/s13068-020-01679-y · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Comparison of methane production between C3 and C4 grasses and legumes
Archimède, H., Eugène, M., Marie-Magdeleine, C., Boval, M., Martin, C., Morgavi, D. P., Lecomte, P., & Doreau, M. (2011) · Animal Feed Science and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.04.003 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
“However, variation of CH4 production among the 5 types of forage is lower than that in mixed diets where the proportion of forage and concentrate varies (Johnson and Johnson, 1995).”
BackgroundCool Farming : Climate impacts of agriculture and mitigation potential
Bellarby, J., Foereid, B., Hastings, A., & Smith, P. (2008) · Lancaster EPrints (Lancaster University) · Cited by 253 · see citing works
The Role of the Gut Microbiome in Cattle Production and Health: Driver or Passenger?
O’Hara, E., Neves, A. L. A., Song, Y., & Guan, L. L. (2020) · Annual Review of Animal Biosciences · doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-021419-083952 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
“In addition to its negative environmental impact, the loss of gross dietary energy to the animal via enteric methanogenesis is estimated at 2–12% and is therefore a major contributor to reduced host feed efficiency (FE) (7).”
BackgroundNonequilibrium clumped isotope signals in microbial methane
Wang, D. T., Gruen, D. S., Lollar, B. S., Hinrichs, K., Stewart, L. C., Holden, J. F., Hristov, A. N., Pohlman, J., Morrill, P. L., Könneke, M., et al. (2015) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aaa4326 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from Canadian animal agriculture: A review
Kebreab, E., Clark, K., Wagner‐Riddle, C., & France, J. (2006) · Canadian Journal of Animal Science · doi:10.4141/a05-010 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
“Johnson and Johnson (1995) give a critical review of some of the methods used; therefore, attention is given here to the most commonly used techniques and studies providing a comparison of methods.”
BackgroundMethodA universal equation to predict methane production of forage-fed cattle in Australia
Charmley, E., Williams, S. R. O., Moate, P. J., Hegarty, R. S., Herd, R. M., Oddy, V. H., Reyenga, P. J., Staunton, K. M., Anderson, A., & Hannah, M. C. (2015) · Animal Production Science · doi:10.1071/an15365 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
“At any given DMI, the observed variation in methane emissions is due to several factors, including differences in diet composition (Johnson and Johnson 1995), variation in the dayto-day feed intake (Moate et al. 2012), genetic differences among animals (Hegarty et al. 2006) and measurement error…”
BackgroundInfluentialFactors affecting methane production and mitigation in ruminants
Shibata, M., & Terada, F. (2009) · Animal Science Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1740-0929.2009.00687.x · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Tan, H. Y., Sieo, C. C., Abdullah, N., Liang, J. B., Huang, X. D., & Ho, Y. W. (2011) · Animal Feed Science and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.07.004 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
The effect of pH on ruminal methanogenesis
Kessel, J. A. S. V., & Russell, J. B. (1996) · FEMS Microbiology Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.1996.tb00319.x · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Lassey, K. R. (2006) · Agricultural and Forest Meteorology · doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2006.03.028 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
“Recognising the large scatter in Ym values reported in the literature that neither strongly correlate with forage quality nor differentiate ruminant categories on the same diet (Johnson and Johnson, 1995; Johnson et al., 2000a), the GPG recommendations are ‘broadbrush’ Ym values: either 0.”
BackgroundPotential Environmental Benefits of Ionophores in Ruminant Diets
Tedeschi, L. O., Fox, D. G., & Tylutki, T. P. (2003) · Journal of Environmental Quality · doi:10.2134/jeq2003.1591 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Phylogenetic analysis of methanogens from the bovine rumen
Whitford, M. F., Teather, R. M., & Forster, R. J. (2001) · BMC Microbiology · doi:10.1186/1471-2180-1-5 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
“Interest in methanogens from ruminants has resulted from the role of methane in global warming and from the fact that cattle typically lose 6 % of ingested energy as methane [3].”
BackgroundHoltshausen, L., Chaves, A. V., Beauchemin, K. A., McGinn, S. M., McAllister, T. A., Odongo, N. E., Cheeke, P. R., & Benchaar, C. (2009) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2008-1843 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
“ing energy efficiency of the cow (Johnson and Johnson, 1995) and from an environmental perspective because J.”
BackgroundHonan, M. C., Feng, X., Tricárico, J. M., & Kebreab, E. (2021) · Animal Production Science · doi:10.1071/an20295 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“…in several ways, including (1) toxic characteristics on methanogens and protozoa, (2) hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids (alternative H2 sink) and (3) shifts to propionic production, leading to reduction of enteric CH4 production (Johnson and Johnson 1995; Beauchemin et al. 2008, 2009b).”
BackgroundMethane and the Gastrointestinal Tract
Sahakian, A. B., Jee, S.-R., & Pimentel, M. (2009) · Digestive Diseases and Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10620-009-1012-0 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
“Ruminant livestock can actually produce 250–500 l of CH4 per day [28].”
BackgroundInfluentialAlternative approaches to predicting methane emissions from dairy cows1
Mills, J. A. N., Kebreab, E., Yates, C. M., Crompton, L. A., Cammell, S. B., Dhanoa, M. S., Agnew, R. E., & France, J. (2003) · Journal of Animal Science · doi:10.2527/2003.81123141x · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Molecular Diversity of Rumen Methanogens from Sheep in Western Australia
Wright, A. G., Williams, A. J., Winder, B., Christophersen, C. T., Rodgers, S. L., & Smith, K. D. (2004) · Applied and Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1128/aem.70.3.1263-1270.2004 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
“5% of the methane emitted by ruminants is produced in the rumen (3), and the associated loss of energy for the ruminant has been estimated to be between 2 and 15% of the gross energy intake (18, 25, 40).”
BackgroundKinley, R. D., de Nys, R., Vucko, M. J., Machado, L., & Tomkins, N. W. (2016) · Animal Production Science · doi:10.1071/an15576 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
“Feed energy is typically lost as CH 4 at a rate of up to 12% of gross energy intake (Johnson and Johnson 1995).”
BackgroundImpact of the intensification of beef production in Brazil on greenhouse gas emissions and land use
Cardoso, A. S., Berndt, A., Leytem, A., Alves, B. J. R., de Carvalho, I. D. N. O., de Barros Soares, L. H., Urquiaga, S., & Boddey, R. M. (2016) · Agricultural Systems · doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2015.12.007 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Ametaj, B., Zebeli, Q., Saleem, F., Psychogios, N., Lewis, M., Dunn, S. M., Xia, J., & Wishart, D. (2010) · Metabolomics · doi:10.1007/s11306-010-0227-6 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“and the nature of dietary carbohydrate fermented in the reticulorumen and the ratio between acetate and propionate, affect the amount of methane emitted from cattle (Johnson and Johnson 1995).”
BackgroundIonophores: their use as ruminant growth promotants and impact on food safety.
Callaway, T. R., Edrington, T. S., Rychlik, J. L., Genovese, K. J., Poole, T. L., Jung, Y., Bischoff, K. M., Anderson, R. C., & Nisbet, D. J. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 212 · see citing works
The use of biochar in animal feeding
Schmidt, H., Hagemann, N., Draper, K., & Kammann, C. I. (2019) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.7373 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Lan, W., & Yang, C. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.180 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Glasson, C. R. K., Kinley, R. D., de Nys, R., King, N., Adams, S. L., Packer, M. A., Svenson, J., Eason, C., & Magnusson, M. E. (2022) · Algal Research · doi:10.1016/j.algal.2022.102673 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Mao, H.-L., Wang, J., Zhou, Y., & Liu, J. (2010) · Livestock Science · doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2009.12.011 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
“In the process of ruminal fermentation in ruminants, 2–12% of ingested gross energy is converted to methane, which not only lowers the efficiency of feedstuff utilization, but also contributes to global warming (Johnson and Johnson, 1995).”
BackgroundPrediction of enteric methane emissions from cattle
Moraes, L. E., Strathe, A. B., Fadel, J. G., Casper, D. P., & Kebreab, E. (2013) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.12471 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
“These rely on the prediction of methane emissions at the individual animal level because measurements of daily emissions from livestock require specialized equipment and may be expensive (Johnson & Johnson, 1995).”
BackgroundMethane abatement strategies for cattle: Lipid supplementation of diets
Beauchemin, K. A., McGinn, S. M., & Petit, H. V. (2007) · Canadian Journal of Animal Science · doi:10.4141/cjas07011 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Malmuthuge, N., & Guan, L. L. (2017) · Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology/Journal of animal science and biotechnology · doi:10.1186/s40104-016-0135-3 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
“Methane emission is a greater issue in terms of both global warming and feed efficiency of cattle [42, 43] in which inefficient cattle has been linked to a higher emission of methane [36].”
BackgroundBasarab, J. A., Beauchemin, K. A., Baron, V. S., Ominski, K., Guan, L., Miller, S. P., & Crowley, J. J. (2013) · animal · doi:10.1017/s1751731113000888 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
“RFI, methane production and digestibility Reduction of CH4 emissions from ruminants is important because it represents 2% to 12% loss of feed energy by cattle (Johnson et al., 1994; Johnson and Johnson, 1995) and is linked to global warming.”
BackgroundInfluential
- Authors
- Johnson, K. A., & Johnson, D. E.
- Affiliations
- Washington State University (US)
- ORCID
- Johnson, K. A.
- Venue
- Journal of Animal Science
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1995-08-01
- Volume
- 73
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 2483-2492
- ISSN
- 0021-8812 (ISSN-L)
- 1525-3163
- OpenAlex
- W1837026033
- Cited by
- 2,714
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 131 · 2025: 157 · 2024: 174 · 2023: 159 · 2022: 197 · 2021: 158 · 2020: 154 · 2019: 133 · 2018: 135 · 2017: 133 · 2016: 160 · 2015: 161 · 2014: 150 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 114
- FWCI
- 9.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Animal Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Agronomy and Crop Science › Ruminant Nutrition and Digestive Physiology
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Agriculture Sustainability and Environmental Impact
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Anaerobic Digestion and Biogas Production
- Keywords
- methane emissions, cattle, ruminant livestock, enteric methane, global warming, methane mitigation, feed intake, dietary carbohydrates, feed processing, dietary fat, ionophores, tracer techniques, mass balance, micrometeorological methods, methane budget
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Feed, Atmosphere, Cattle, Cattle Diseases, Chromatography, Gas, Diet, Eating, Eructation, Female, Fermentation, Methane, Rumen, Mass Spectrometry, Greenhouse Effect
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