ESTONIAN STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION AND DEFINITION OF CYBERBULLYING; pp. 323–343
Open accessAbstract
Rapid development of information and communication technologies is having a direct impact on the lives of adolescents, and a new form of bullying has emerged. This study aims to examine how Estonian students perceive and define cyberbullying based on five cyberbullying criteria (imbalance of power, intention, repetition, anonymity, and publicity/privacy) and four types of cyberbullying behaviour (written-verbal, visual, exclusion, and impersonation). A quali-quanti approach was used consisting of focus groups and a questionnaire. Two mixed-gender focus groups of 12- and 15-year-old students were interviewed to deepen their perception in relation to cyberbullying criteria and behaviours. Results were used for the quantitative study. The questionnaire was conducted with 336 adolescents from twelve Estonian schools, aged from 11 to 17 years. Results by MDS revealed a two-dimensional model characterized by imbalance of power and anonymity. This study can help to improve understanding of the phenomenon with respect to student perceptions.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Ethical issues were not discussed in four included studies.
“Ethical issues were not discussed in four studies (Abu Bakar, 2015;Naruskov et al., 2012;Topcu, Yıldırım, & Erdur-Baker, 2013;Vandebosch & Van Cleemput, 2008).”
From Young people’s conceptualizations of the nature of cyberbullying: A systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research (2020) · cites this paper as Naruskov et al., 2012
Three studies incorporated vignettes or scenarios to frame group discussion.
“Three studies incorporated vignettes or scenarios to frame group discussion (Berne et al., 2014;Naruskov et al., 2012;Nocentini et al., 2010).”
From Young people’s conceptualizations of the nature of cyberbullying: A systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research (2020) · cites this paper as Naruskov et al., 2012
Intent to harm was reported by several studies as a key element within young people's descriptions of cyberbullying.
“The intent to harm was reported by several studies as a key element within young people's descriptions of cyberbullying (Berne et al., 2014;Naruskov et al., 2012;Nocentini et al., 2010;Topcu et al., 2013;Vandebosch & Van Cleemput, 2008).”
From Young people’s conceptualizations of the nature of cyberbullying: A systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research (2020) · cites this paper as Naruskov et al., 2012
Students in an Estonian study perceived visual cyberbullying as more serious as it was more humiliating and more convincing.
“Students in an Estonian study perceived visual cyberbullying as more serious as it was more humiliating and more convincing, they articulated that”
From Young people’s conceptualizations of the nature of cyberbullying: A systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research (2020) · cites this paper as Naruskov et al., 2012
Repetition differentiates between a joke and an intentional attack and characterizes the severity of the action.
“It was recognized that repetition differentiates between a joke and an intentional attack and characterizes the severity of the action.(Baas et al., 2013;Jacobs et al., 2015;Naruskov et al., 2012;Nocentini et al., 2010;Vandebosch & Van Cleemput, 2008).”
From Young people’s conceptualizations of the nature of cyberbullying: A systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research (2020) · cites this paper as Naruskov et al., 2012
The impact of cyberbullying can be more severe if the perpetrator is a familiar person.
“and it was suggested that the impact can be more severe if the perpetrator is a familiar person (Baas et al., 2013;Naruskov et al., 2012).”
From Young people’s conceptualizations of the nature of cyberbullying: A systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research (2020) · cites this paper as Naruskov et al., 2012
Young people recognized anonymity as a large part of the power and impact of cyberbullying.
“This was recognized by young people as a large part of the power and impact of cyber bullying (Baas et al., 2013;Mishna et al., 2009;Naruskov et al., 2012;Nocentini et al., 2010;Smith et al., 2008;Vandebosch & Van Cleemput, 2008).”
From Young people’s conceptualizations of the nature of cyberbullying: A systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research (2020) · cites this paper as Naruskov et al., 2012
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research
McQuarrie, E. F., & Krueger, R. A. (1989) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3172912 · Cited by 15,489 · see citing works
Focus Groups as Qualitative Research
Morgan, D. (1997) · doi:10.4135/9781412984287 · Cited by 8,863 · see citing works
Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research
Billson, J. M. (1989) · Human Biology · Cited by 8,560 · see citing works
Multidimensional Scaling by Optimizing Goodness of Fit to a Nonmetric Hypothesis
Kruskal, J. B. (1964) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02289565 · Cited by 7,270 · see citing works
Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x · Cited by 3,639 · see citing works
Focus Groups as Qualitative Research
Kawamura, H., & Morgan, D. L. (1998) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/330238 · Cited by 2,822 · see citing works
Cyberostracism: effects of being ignored over the Internet
Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.748 · Cited by 2,276 · see citing works
Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying?
SLONJE, R., & SMITH, P. K. (2008) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00611.x · Cited by 1,844 · see citing works
Modern Multidimensional Scaling
Borg, I., & Groenen, P. J. F. (1997) · Springer series in statistics · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-2711-1 · Cited by 1,745 · see citing works
Modern multidimensional scaling : theory and applications
Borg, I., & Groenen, P. J. F. (1997) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-387-28981-x · Cited by 1,615 · see citing works
Electronic Bullying Among Middle School Students
Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2007) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.017 · Cited by 1,580 · see citing works
Cyberbullying: An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Related to Offending and Victimization
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2008) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639620701457816 · Cited by 1,497 · see citing works
(2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315812397 · Cited by 1,100 · see citing works
Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2008) · Cited by 881 · see citing works
Cyberbullying: bullying in the digital age
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.50-1536 · Cited by 870 · see citing works
Cyberbullying and Self-Esteem*
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2010) · Journal of School Health · doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2010.00548.x · Cited by 799 · see citing works
Smith, P. K., Cowie, H., Olafsson, R. F., Liefooghe, A. P. D., Almeida, A., Araki, H., del Barrio, C., Costabile, A., Dekleva, B., Houndoumadi, A., et al. (2002) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00461 · Cited by 791 · see citing works
Cyberbullying Versus Face-to-Face Bullying: A Theoretical and Conceptual Review
Dooley, J. J., Pyżalski, J., & Cross, D. (2009) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1027/0044-3409.217.4.182 · Cited by 790 · see citing works
Willard, N. E. (2006) · Cited by 712 · see citing works
Defining Cyberbullying: A Qualitative Research into the Perceptions of Youngsters
Vandebosch, H., & Van Cleemput, K. (2008) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.0042 · Cited by 663 · see citing works
Ongoing and online: Children and youth's perceptions of cyber bullying
Mishna, F., Saini, M., & Solomon, S. (2009) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.05.004 · Cited by 560 · see citing works
Bullying: Are researchers and children/youth talking about the same thing?
Vaillancourt, T., McDougall, P., Hymel, S. C., Krygsman, A., Miller, J., Stiver, K., & Davis, C. (2008) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025408095553 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Cyberbullying: Labels, behaviours and definition in three European countries
Nocentini, A., Calmaestra, J., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Scheithauer, H., Ortega, R., & Menesini, E. (2010) · Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1375/ajgc.20.2.129 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
Self-citationCyber-aggression: definition and concept of cyberbullying
Grigg, D. W. (2010) · Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1375/ajgc.20.2.143 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Cyberbullying definition among adolescents: A comparison across six European countries
Menesini, E., Nocentini, A., Palladino, B. E., Frisén, A., Berne, S., Ortega-Ruiz, R., Calmaestra, J., Scheithauer, H., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Luik, P., et al. (2012) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2012.0040 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Self-citationDefinitions of bullying: Age differences in understanding of the term, and the role of experience.
Monks, C. P., & Smith, P. K. (2006) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151005x82352 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Cyberbullying Definition and Measurement
Menesini, E., & Nocentini, A. (2009) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/0044-3409.217.4.230 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
A Review of Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) and its Utility in Various Psychological Domains
Jaworska, N., & Chupetlovska-Anastasova, A. (2009) · Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology · doi:10.20982/tqmp.05.1.p001 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Cyber-Bullying: Issues and Solutions for the School, the Classroom and the Home
Shariff, S. (2008) · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Cyberbullying: Bullying in the Digital Age
Pridgen, B. C. (2009) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000314059.89413.f7 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Definition and Measurement of Cyberbullying
Gradinger, P., Strohmeier, D., & Spiel, C. (2010) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Parents' Definitions of Children's Bullying in a Five-Country Comparison
Smorti, A., Menesini, E., & Smith, P. K. (2003) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022103034004003 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Cyberbullying and online teens
Lenhart, A. (2007) · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Menesini, E., Fonzi, A., & Smith, P. K. (2002) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/bf03173593 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Multidimensional Scaling Methods for Many-Object Sets: A Review
Tsogo, L., Masson, M.-H., & Bardot, A. (2000) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3503_02 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Cyberbullying Definition and Measurement: Some Critical Considerations.
Menesini, E., & Nocentini, A. (2009) · Florence Research (University of Florence) · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 38 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Li, Qing (2007) "Bullying in the new playground: research into cyberbullying and cyber victimiza- tion". Australasian Journal of Educational Technology 23, 4, 435-454.
- Mishna, Faye, Michael Saini and Steven Solomon (2009) "Ongoing and online: children and youth's perception of cyberbullying." Children and Youth Services Review 31, 12, 1222-1228.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Dennehy, R., Meaney, S., Walsh, K. A., Sinnott, C., Cronin, M., & Arensman, E. (2020) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2020.101379 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Cyberbullying involvement and mental health problems among late adolescents
Fjeld, S. S., Rème, S. E., & Mossige, S. (2020) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2020-1-5 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Perceived Severity of Cyberbullying: Differences and Similarities across Four Countries
Palladino, B. E., Menesini, E., Nocentini, A., Luik, P., Naruskov, K., Uçanok, Z., Doğan, A., Schultze‐Krumbholz, A., Hess, M., & Scheithauer, H. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01524 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
RCBI-II: The Second Revision of the Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory
Topçu, Ç., & Erdur‐Baker, Ö. (2017) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1080/07481756.2017.1395705 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Cuadrado-Gordillo, I., & Fernández-Antelo, I. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.10.005 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Cyberspace as a generator of changes in the aggressive-victim role
Gordillo, I. C., & Antelo, I. F. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.070 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Retrospective Experiences of Cyberbullying and Emotional Outcomes on Young Adults Who Stutter
Nicolai, S., Geffner, R. A., Stolberg, R. A., & Yaruss, J. S. (2018) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-018-0208-x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Nagar, P. M., & Talwar, V. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104922 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Definition and Characteristics of “Cyberbullying” among Vietnamese Students
Công, T. V., Ngoc, N. P. H., Weiss, B., Luot, N. V., & Dat, N. B. (2018) · VNU Journal of Science Education Research · doi:10.25073/2588-1159/vnuer.4212 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Navarro, R., & Sarrato, C. S. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-25552-1_10 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Heiman, T., Olenik-Shemesh, D., & Frank, G. (2019) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/0886-6708.34.1.28 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Woo, W. H., Chua, H. N., & Gan, M. F. (2023) · International Journal on Perceptive and Cognitive Computing · doi:10.31436/ijpcc.v9i1.374 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Cyberbullying in teenagers – a true burden in the era of online socialization
Balas, R. B., Meliţ, L. E., Sarkozi, D., Ghiga, D. V., & Mărginean, C. O. (2023) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000034051 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Measurement of Cyber-Bullying Severity
Hollá, K., Fenyvesiová, L., & Hanuliaková, J. (2017) · The New Educational Review · doi:10.15804/tner.2017.47.1.02 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Relationship Between Self-disclosure and Cyberbullying on SNSs
Won, J., & Seo, D. (2017) · Lecture notes in business information processing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65930-5_13 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Luik, P., & Naruskov, K. (2018) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95522-3_3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Parâmetros psicométricos das Escalas Florence de Cyber Agressão – Cyber Vitimização
Cavalcanti, J. G., Paiva, T. T., ́Pimentel, C. E., Pinto, A. V. D. L., & de Moura, G. B. (2019) · Psico · doi:10.15448/1980-8623.2019.3.31520 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cyberbullying: A Systematic Literature Review on the Definitional Criteria
Amalina, Y. N., Chinniah, M., Othman, A. A., & Palaniappan, S. (2022) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v12-i3/12042 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Antelo, I. F., Gordillo, I. C., & Parra, G. M.-M. (2020) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v15i24.19309 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
MySpace or yours?: homophobic and transphobic bullying in cyberspace
Pescitelli, A. (2013) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Experiences of Adolescents regarding Cyberbullying
Franks, T. S. (2015) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Naruskov, K., & Luik, P. (2015) · Eesti Haridusteaduste Ajakiri = Estonian Journal of Education · doi:10.12697/eha.2015.3.2.07 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Robinson, Y., & Petherick, W. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809287-3.00010-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Antelo, I. F. (2020) · The Proceedings of the International Conference on Research in Education, Teaching and Learning. · doi:10.33422/3rd.icetl.2020.02.44 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Gamer's Mindset: A Retrospective Study Exploring Young Adult Males' Online Gaming Experiences
Kaye, L. S. (2019) · HARVEST (University of Saskatchewan)
Menabò, L., Roga, F., Gea, S. F., Ginocchio, D., & Guarini, A. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16030435
Duc, T. M. (2026) · Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties · doi:10.1080/13632752.2026.2649694 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sarayra, D., & Al-Makhamreh, S. (2026) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-026-01184-5
- Authors
- Naruskov, K., Luik, P., Nocentini, A., & Menesini, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Tartu (EE)
- University of Florence (IT)
- Venue
- Trames Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences
- Publisher
- Estonian Academy Publishers
- Published
- 2012-11-26
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 323-343
- ISSN
- 1406-0922 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2110827918
- Cited by
- 30
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 5 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 3.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Trames Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Florence Research (University of Florence) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Tartu Ülikool
- European Social Fund (1.2.0401.09 – 0070, project no. 1.2.0401.09 – 0070)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection
- Keywords
- cyberbullying, student perceptions, adolescents, power imbalance, anonymity, exclusion, impersonation, Estonian students
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
