Microglia in the Neuroinflammatory Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Therapeutic Targets

Cai, Yongle; Liu, Jingliu; Wang, Bin; Sun, Miao; Yang, Hao

doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.856376

Cited by 352Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration MechanismsAlzheimer's disease research and treatmentsNeurological Disease Mechanisms and Treatments

Microglia in the Neuroinflammatory Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Therapeutic Targets

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Cai, Yongle, Liu, Jingliu, Wang, Bin, Sun, Miao, Yang, Hao·2022·Frontiers in Immunology

DOI 10.3389/fimmu.2022.856376PMC PMC9086828

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Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease worldwide, characterized by progressive neuron degeneration or loss due to excessive accumulation of β-amyloid (Aβ) peptides, formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), and hyperphosphorylated tau. The treatment of AD has been only partially successful as the majority of the pharmacotherapies on the market may alleviate some of the symptoms. In the occurrence of AD, increasing attention has been paid to neurodegeneration, while the resident glial cells, like microglia are also observed. Microglia, a kind of crucial glial cells associated with the innate immune response, functions as double-edge sword role in CNS. They exert a beneficial or detrimental influence on the adjacent neurons through secretion of both pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as neurotrophic factors. In addition, their endocytosis of debris and toxic protein like Aβ and tau ensures homeostasis of the neuronal microenvironment. In this review, we will systematically summarize recent research regarding the roles of microglia in AD pathology and latest microglia-associated therapeutic targets mainly including pro-inflammatory genes, anti-inflammatory genes and phagocytosis at length, some of which are contradictory and controversial and warrant to further be investigated.

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Microglia may help contain amyloid plaques, phagocytose pathological material, support synapses, and limit inflammatory spread; yet they may also release pro-inflammatory mediators, promote complement-associated synapse loss, propagate neurotoxic signaling, and contribute to chronic tissue damage.
“Microglia may help contain amyloid plaques, phagocytose pathological material, support synapses, and limit inflammatory spread; yet they may also release pro-inflammatory mediators, promote complement-associated synapse loss, propagate neurotoxic signaling, and contribute to chronic tissue damage.”
From Lymphoid-like Suppressive Microglia in Alzheimer’s Disease: A New Neuroimmune Regulatory Axis? (2026) · cites this paper as [19]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
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The same broad category of microglial activation can describe processes with opposite biological consequences.
“The central unresolved issue is that the same broad category of “microglial activation” can describe processes with opposite biological consequences.”
From Lymphoid-like Suppressive Microglia in Alzheimer’s Disease: A New Neuroimmune Regulatory Axis? (2026) · cites this paper as [19]
Alzheimer's neuroinflammation is a dynamic balance between protective and harmful microglial programs, with disease stage and local tissue environment determining whether immune activation is beneficial, insufficient, maladaptive, or toxic.
“Reviews and experimental studies now increasingly describe Alzheimer’s neuroinflammation as a dynamic balance between protective and harmful microglial programs, with disease stage and local tissue environment determining whether immune activation is beneficial, insufficient, maladaptive, or toxic [13,19].”
From Lymphoid-like Suppressive Microglia in Alzheimer’s Disease: A New Neuroimmune Regulatory Axis? (2026) · cites this paper as [19]

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“org 8 load and enhances Ab clearance, which mainly attributes to an increase in the ability of microglia to proliferate and the upregulation of phagocytosis-related genes caused by IL-1b (83).”
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Entorhinal Cortex dysfunction can be rescued by inhibition of microglial RAGE in an Alzheimer’s disease mouse model
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CD36 Upregulation Mediated by Intranasal LV-NRF2 Treatment Mitigates Hypoxia-Induced Progression of Alzheimer's-Like Pathogenesis
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L-Cysteine-Derived H2S Promotes Microglia M2 Polarization via Activation of the AMPK Pathway in Hypoxia-Ischemic Neonatal Mice
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Rhinacanthin C Alleviates Amyloid‐β Fibrils’ Toxicity on Neurons and Attenuates Neuroinflammation Triggered by LPS, Amyloid‐β, and Interferon‐γ in Glial Cells
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Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Dimethyl Fumarate in Microglia via an Autophagy Dependent Pathway
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5D4 keratan sulfate epitope identifies a subset of ramified microglia in normal central nervous system parenchyma
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Alzheimer’s Disease: Exploring the Landscape of Cognitive Decline
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A small-molecule TLR4 antagonist reduced neuroinflammation in female E4FAD mice
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Common Signaling Pathways Involved in Alzheimer’s Disease and Stroke: Two Faces of the Same Coin
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The immunometabolic reprogramming of microglia in Alzheimerʼs disease
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Protein palmitoylation: biological functions, disease, and therapeutic targets
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Microglial dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease: Mechanisms, emerging therapies, and future directions
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Zhang, M., Liang, C.-M., Chen, X., Cai, Y.-J., & Cui, L. (2023) · Neural Regeneration Research · doi:10.4103/1673-5374.389745 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
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Korean black ginseng extract alleviates Alzheimer's disease-related cognitive impairment by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and suppressing the p38 MAPK/NF-κB/STAT3 pathways and NLRP3 inflammasome via TLR2 and TLR4 modulation
Ha, Y., Jo, H.-S., Kwon, T. W., Jeon, S. H., Moon, S., Jung, J. H., Kim, M. S., Nah, S.-Y., Lee, J. K., & Cho, I. (2025) · Journal of Ginseng Research · doi:10.1016/j.jgr.2025.02.002 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
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Extracellular vesicles as therapeutic modulators of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease: a focus on signaling mechanisms
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Schisandrin B ameliorates Alzheimer's disease by suppressing neuronal ferroptosis and ensuing microglia M1 polarization
Ding, T., Song, M., Wu, Y., Zhu, L., Zhang, S., & Fan, X. (2025) · Phytomedicine · doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2025.156780 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
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Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of novel tryptanthrin derivatives as selective acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease
Xia, J., Dong, S., Yang, L., Wang, F., Xing, S., Du, J., & Li, Z. (2023) · Bioorganic Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106980 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Glucose Metabolic Reprogramming in Microglia: Implications for Neurodegenerative Diseases and Targeted Therapy
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YOD1 regulates microglial homeostasis by deubiquitinating MYH9 to promote the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease
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Postbiotics as a therapeutic tool in Alzheimer's disease: Insights into molecular pathways and neuroprotective effects
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A systematic review on type 3 diabetes: bridging the gap between metabolic dysfunction and Alzheimer’s disease
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Low-Dose Radiation Therapy (LDRT) against Cancer and Inflammatory or Degenerative Diseases: Three Parallel Stories with a Common Molecular Mechanism Involving the Nucleoshuttling of the ATM Protein?
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Iron chelators as a therapeutic option for Alzheimer’s disease—A mini-review
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Mechanistic Intimate Insights into the Role of Hydrogen Sulfide in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Recent Systematic Review
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Insulin signaling and oxidative stress: Bridging the gap between type 2 diabetes mellitus and Alzheimer's disease
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The Role of Neuroinflammation in the Comorbidity of Psychiatric Disorders and Internal Diseases
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Nanobiosensors in neurodegenerative disease diagnosis: A promising pathway for early detection
Yadav, S., Bukke, S. P. N., Prajapati, S., Singh, A. P., Chettupalli, A. K., & Nicholas, B. (2025) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076251342457 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Molecular and functional characteristics of receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) and its therapeutic potential in Alzheimer's disease
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Norboldine improves cognitive impairment and pathological features in Alzheimer's disease by activating AMPK/GSK3β/Nrf2 signaling pathway
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Authors: Cai, Y., Liu, J., Wang, B., Sun, M., & Yang, H.
Affiliations: First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University (CN)
Corresponding author: Sun, Miao
Yang, Hao
ORCID: Wang, Bin
Sun, Miao
Yang, Hao
Venue: Frontiers in Immunology
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Published: 2022-04-26
Volume: 13
Pages: 856376-856376
ISSN: 1664-3224 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.856376
PMC: PMC9086828
OpenAlex: W4281554374
Cited by: 351
References: 169
Citations by year: 2026: 70 · 2025: 148 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 4
FWCI: 7.24
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Frontiers in Immunology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders: National Natural Science Foundation of China (81,570,960, 81,974,244, 82071551, 2019YFA0802600)
Government of Jiangsu Province
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neurological Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
Keywords: microglia, Alzheimer's disease, neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, amyloid-beta, tau hyperphosphorylation, neurofibrillary tangles, inflammatory cytokines, anti-inflammatory genes, phagocytosis, microglial homeostasis, therapeutic target
MeSH terms: Alzheimer Disease, Humans, Neurons, Amyloid beta-Peptides, Microglia, Neurodegenerative Diseases

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Microglia in the Neuroinflammatory Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Therapeutic Targets

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