Effects of cage enrichment on behavior, welfare and outcome variability in female mice
Open accessAbstract
The manner in which laboratory rodents are housed is driven by economics (minimal use of space and resources), ergonomics (ease of handling and visibility of animals), hygiene, and standardization (reduction of variation). This has resulted in housing conditions that lack sensory and motor stimulation and restrict the expression of species-typical behavior. In mice, such housing conditions have been associated with indicators of impaired welfare, including abnormal repetitive behavior (stereotypies, compulsive behavior), enhanced anxiety and stress reactivity, and thermal stress. However, due to concerns that more complex environmental conditions might increase variation in experimental results, there has been considerable resistance to the implementation of environmental enrichment beyond the provision of nesting material. Here, using 96 C57BL/6 and SWISS female mice, respectively, we systematically varied environmental enrichment across four levels spanning the range of common enrichment strategies: (1) bedding alone; (2) bedding + nesting material; (3) deeper bedding + nesting material + shelter + increased vertical space; and (4) semi-naturalistic conditions, including weekly changes of enrichment items. We studied how these different forms of environmental enrichment affected measures of animal welfare, including home-cage behavior (time-budget and stereotypic behavior), anxiety (open field behavior, elevated plus-maze behavior), growth (food and water intake, body mass), stress physiology (glucocorticoid metabolites in fecal boluses and adrenal mass), brain function (recurrent perseveration in a two-choice guessing task) and emotional valence (judgment bias). Our results highlight the difficulty in making general recommendations across common strains of mice and for selecting enrichment strategies within specific strains. Overall, the greatest benefit was observed in animals housed with the greatest degree of enrichment. Thus, in the super-enriched housing condition, stereotypic behavior, behavioral measures of anxiety, growth and stress physiology varied in a manner consistent with improved animal welfare compared to the other housing conditions with less enrichment. Similar to other studies, we found no evidence, in the measures assessed here, that environmental enrichment increased variation in experimental results.
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Environmental enrichment reduces anxiety and promotes positive affective states in rodents.
“Environmental enrichment has previously been shown to reduce anxiety and promote positive affective states in rodents [10–12], making it a suitable paradigm to study long-term positive olfactory memory.”
From Positive early-life olfactory memory is rooted in the olfactory bulb and triggers large-scale changes beyond the olfactory system (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
The Introduction and Discussion report reduced anxiety-related measures in enriched mice. The Outcome Variables section reports that enriched housing was associated with more optimistic judgments in rats, a measure of emotional valence; the Discussion says this study did not establish a comparable change in emotional valence in mice. The claim therefore overgeneralizes the positive-affect finding to rodents without that qualification. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAn enriched playful environment enhances animal well-being.
“an enriched playful environment, which is reported to enhance animal well-being [10–12].”
From Positive early-life olfactory memory is rooted in the olfactory bulb and triggers large-scale changes beyond the olfactory system (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
The Discussion reports improved welfare in female mice housed with the most extensive enrichment. It also says lesser levels of enrichment did not consistently improve welfare. The source therefore supports a qualified claim about extensive cage enrichment in mice, but not the broader implication that enriched environments generally enhance animal well-being; it does not establish a distinct effect of playfulness. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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Loss, C. M., Melleu, F. F., Domingues, K., Lino-de-Oliveira, C., & Viola, G. G. (2021) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2021.763428 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
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“Environmental enrichment has previously been shown to reduce anxiety and promote positive affective states in rodents [10–12], making it a suitable paradigm to study long-term positive olfactory memory.”
- Authors
- Bailoo, J. D., Murphy, E., Boada-Saña, M., Varholick, J. A., Hintze, S., Baussière, C., Hahn, K. C., Göpfert, C., Palme, R., Voelkl, B., & Würbel, H.
- Affiliations
- University of Bern (CH)
- BOKU University (AT)
- University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna (AT)
- Corresponding author
- Bailoo, Jeremy D.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2018-10-26
- Volume
- 12
- Pages
- 232-232
- ISSN
- 1662-5153 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6212514
- OpenAlex
- W2898172643
- Cited by
- 120
- References
- 92
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 9
- FWCI
- 15.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Bern Open Repository and Information System (University of Bern) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Open Access CRIS of the University of Bern
- Funders
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (322576)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal testing and alternatives
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Veterinary Pharmacology and Anesthesia
- Keywords
- cage enrichment, animal welfare, stereotypy, anxiety, stress physiology, glucocorticoid metabolites, adrenal mass, perseveration, judgment bias, nesting material, shelter, vertical space, C57BL/6 mice, Swiss mice, strain differences
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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