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Cited by 70Eating Disorders and BehaviorsNutrition, Health and Food BehaviorPersonality Disorders and Psychopathology

“Food Addiction” in patients with eating disorders is associated with negative urgency and difficulties to focus on long-term goals

Open access
Wolz, Ines, Hilker, Ines, Granero, Roser, Jiménez-Murcia, Susana, Gearhardt, Ashley N., Dieguez, Carlos, Casanueva, Felipe F., Crujeiras, Ana B. +2 more·2016·Frontiers in Psychology
DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00061PMC PMC4735728
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Abstract

OBJECTIVES: The present study aimed to investigate if eating disorder patients differ in specific personality traits depending on a positive screening of food addiction (FA) and to find a model to predict FA in eating disorder patients using measures of personality and impulsivity. METHODS: Two hundred seventy eight patients, having an eating disorder, self-reported on FA, impulsivity, personality, eating and general psychopathology. Patients were then split into two groups, depending on a positive or negative result on the FA screening. Analysis of variance was used to compare means between the two groups. Stepwise binary logistic regression was used to obtain a predictive model for the presence of FA. RESULTS: Patients with FA had lower self-directedness, and more negative urgency and lack of perseverance than patients not reporting addictive eating. The probability of FA can be predicted by high negative urgency, high reward dependence, and low lack of premeditation. CONCLUSION: Eating disorder patients who have more problems to pursue tasks to the end and to focus on long-term goals seem to be more likely to develop addictive eating patterns.

Verified 2026-10-09 · 3 references not checked yet

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In 278 eating-disorder patients, 74.8% screened positive for food addiction (FA), and FA-positive patients showed lower self-directedness plus higher negative urgency and lack of perseverance than FA-negative patients. A predictive model found high negative urgency, high reward dependence, and low lack of premeditation to be associated with FA.

Key findings

  • FA screening was positive in 74.8% of the total ED sample: AN 55.9%, BN 89.1%, OSFED 62.3%, BED 87.2% (χ² = 33.08, df = 3, p < 0.001).
  • Compared with FA-negative patients, FA-positive patients had lower self-directedness (adjusted means 115.37 vs. 125.32, p = 0.007, |d| = 0.47), higher negative urgency (34.39 vs. 29.68, p < 0.001, |d| = 0.71), and higher lack of perseverance (23.54 vs. 21.44, p = 0.033, |d| = 0.37).
  • Novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, persistence, cooperativeness, self-transcendence, lack of premeditation, sensation seeking, and positive urgency did not differ significantly by FA screening in the adjusted ANOVA.
  • In the final logistic regression model, after adjusting for sex, age, and ED subtype, FA was predicted by high reward dependence (OR = 1.03, p = 0.033), low lack of premeditation (OR = 0.93, p = 0.040), and high negative urgency (OR = 1.13, p < 0.001); negative urgency was described as the strongest predictor. The model fit was acceptable (Hosmer–Lemeshow p = 0.408).

Methods

  • Cross-sectional study of 278 consecutive referrals to the Eating Disorders Unit of Bellvitge University Hospital from September 2013 to March 2015; 20 were male. Diagnoses were AN (n = 68), BN (n = 110), BED (n = 39), and OSFED (n = 61), originally by SCID-I/DSM-IV-TR and reanalyzed post hoc with DSM-5 criteria.
  • Participants self-reported on FA (YFAS-S), impulsivity (UPPS-P), personality (TCI-R), eating psychopathology (EDI-2), and general psychopathology (SCL-90-R); behavioral and substance addictions were assessed by clinical interview.
  • ANOVA adjusted for age and ED subtype compared FA-positive and FA-negative groups on TCI-R and UPPS-P scales. Stepwise binary logistic regression predicted positive YFAS screening using blocks for sex/age/diagnostic subtype, TCI-R scales, and UPPS-P scales, with Bonferroni-Finner correction and effect-size reporting.

Limitations

  • Stated: the cross-sectional design cannot determine whether personality traits precede or follow FA symptoms, or whether both share a common cause; the sample was small, especially for male patients; only one self-report FA measure was used; and YFAS cut-off criteria may be problematic in AN, where high FA prevalence seems counterintuitive and some items may be misunderstood.
  • Evident from the text: the sample is treatment-seeking and predominantly female (92.8%), so findings may not generalize to community or male ED populations; all main measures are self-report, and the study compares ED patients with and without FA rather than including a healthy control group.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00061

Cites

78 of 81 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 51 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    In eating disorder patients, a positive food addiction screening is associated with higher lack of perseverance than a negative screening.

    “Patients with FA had lower self-directedness, and more negative urgency and lack of perseverance than patients not reporting addictive eating.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In eating disorder patients, a positive food addiction screening is not associated with a significant difference in harm avoidance compared with a negative screening.

    “while novelty seeking (p = 0.915), harm-avoidance (p = 0.08) and reward dependence (p = 0.56) do not differ significantly between groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In eating disorder patients, a positive food addiction screening is not associated with a significant difference in positive urgency compared with a negative screening.

    “Lack of premeditation, sensation seeking and positive urgency did not differ as a function of FA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Negative urgency is the strongest predictor of a positive YFAS screening score in the final predictive model.

    “while negative urgency can be seen as the strongest predictor of FA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In eating disorder patients, a positive food addiction screening is associated with lower self-directedness than a negative screening, after adjustment for age and eating disorder subtype.

    “Results show that ED patients with positive FA screening compared to patients without FA have lower self-directedness (p < 0.01)”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Patients with FA had lower self-directedness, and more negative urgency and lack of perseverance than patients not reporting addictive eating.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 25
  • May combine two claims. 15

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    High prevalence rates of FA in AN patients seem counterintuitive.

    “a key issue is the high prevalence rates of FA in AN patients, which seems counterintuitive.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The criteria most frequently fulfilled in AN patients are "important activities given up" (60.3%) and "unable to cut down/stop" (89.7%).

    “our results show that the criteria most frequently fulfilled in AN patients are “important activities given up” (60.3%) and “unable to cut down/stop” (89.7%) (see Supplementary Table S3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Negative urgency was the most important predictor and reduced the predictive power of the other variables to very small effects.

    “while negative urgency was the most important predictor and reduced the predictive power of the other variables to very small effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Patients reporting addictive eating patterns have more difficulties to pursue tasks to the end and to focus on long-term goals, especially when they are in a negative mood.

    “The results of this study further indicate that patients reporting addictive eating patterns have more difficulties to pursue tasks to the end and to focus on long-term goals, especially when they are in a negative mood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The YFAS was translated into Spanish and validated in the Spanish adult and eating disorder population, with good validity and reliability scores.

    “The YFAS was translated into Spanish and validated in the Spanish adult and ED population, with good validity and reliability scores (Granero et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Granero et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Hyperpalatable foods characterized by high levels of sugar, fat and salt are potentially addictive for humans.

    “Hyperpalatable foods, characterized by high levels of sugar, fat and salt are potentially addictive for humans (Gearhardt et al., 2011a; Davis, 2014; Schulte et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gearhardt et al., 2011a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Davis, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Schulte et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The original TCI-R and its Spanish version were validated and show good psychometric properties.

    “The original questionnaire and the Spanish version of the revised questionnaire were validated and show good psychometric properties (Cloninger, 1994; Gutiérrez-Zotes et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cloninger, 1994

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gutiérrez-Zotes et al., 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a recent study using the YFAS in eating disorder patients, 72.8% fulfilled criteria for food addiction compared with 2.4% of healthy controls, and those eating disorder patients reporting food addiction showed higher eating disorder severity and more general psychopathology.

    “In a recent study using the YFAS in ED patients, 72.8% of the sample fulfilled the criteria for FA compared to 2.4% of healthy controls, those ED patients who report FA showing higher ED severity and more general psychopathology (Granero et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Granero et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Internal consistency for the YFAS in this study sample was excellent, with Cronbach's α = 0.92.

    “Internal consistency for the YFAS in our sample was excellent, Cronbach’s α = 0.92.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The EDI-2 has been validated in a Spanish population, with mean internal consistency α = 0.63.

    “This scale has been validated in a Spanish population (Garner, 1998), obtaining a mean internal consistency of α = 0.63.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Garner, 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Spanish translation of the UPPS-P shows good reliability and external validity.

    “The Spanish translation shows good reliability (Cronbach’s α between 0.79 and 0.93) and external validity (Verdejo-García et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Verdejo-García et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Eating disorder diagnoses were originally made according to DSM-IV-TR criteria using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Disorders-I, conducted by experienced psychologists and psychiatrists.

    “AN (n = 68), BN (n = 110), BED (n = 39), and OSFED (n = 61) patients were originally diagnosed according to DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) criteria by means of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Disorders-I (First et al., 1996), conducted by experienced psychologists and psychiatrists.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites American Psychiatric Association, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites First et al., 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Internal consistency for the TCI-R in this study sample ranged from very good for novelty seeking (α = 0.80) to excellent for harm avoidance (α = 0.91).

    “Internal consistency for the TCI-R in the study sample ranged from very good (novelty seeking α = 0.80) to excellent (harm avoidance α = 0.91).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Behavioral and substance addictions were assessed in a clinical interview conducted by psychologists and psychiatrists experienced in addictive behaviors.

    “Gambling, kleptomania, stealing and buying behavior and the abuse of alcohol, the use of tobacco (smoking on an at least a daily basis) and drugs (lifetime use of any drug other than alcohol and tobacco) were assessed in a clinical interview conducted by psychologists and psychiatrists experienced in the field of addictive behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Because age significantly differed between groups and eating disorder subtype is known to influence the probability of food addiction, age and eating disorder subtype were entered as covariates.

    “Since age significantly differed between groups and ED subtype is known to influence the probability of FA (Granero et al., 2014), these two variables were entered as covariates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Granero et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    ANOVA was adjusted by participants' age and eating disorder subtype when comparing TCI-R and UPPS-P subscale means between the two food addiction groups.

    “ANOVA, adjusted by participants’ age and ED subtype, was used to compare the means of the seven TCI-R and the five UPPS-P subscales between participants classified into the two FA groups (positive and negative screening score).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The number of missing data in this study was very low.

    “The number of missing data was very low in this study: only data from one SCL-90R questionnaire were missing (for one patient in the YFAS-negative group), one TCI-R (also for one patient in the YFAS-negative group) and eight UPPS (two patients of YFAS-negative and six patients of YFAS-positive group).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A meta-analysis on temperament in eating disorders shows high harm avoidance in all eating disorder types compared with controls, high novelty seeking in bulimia nervosa patients, high persistence in anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and OSFED, and no differences in reward dependence between patient and control groups.

    “A recent meta-analysis on temperament in ED (Atiye et al., 2015) shows high harm avoidance in all ED-types compared to controls, high novelty seeking in BN patients, high persistence in AN, BN and Other Not Specified Eating or Feeding Disorders (OSFED), and no differences in reward dependence between patient and control groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Atiye et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Reliability for the UPPS-P in this study sample ranged from very good for negative urgency (α = 0.83) to excellent for positive urgency (α = 0.91).

    “Reliability as measured by Cronbach’s α for the UPPS-P in the study sample ranged from very good (negative urgency α = 0.83) to excellent (positive urgency α = 0.91).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Bonferroni-Finner correction was included to avoid an increase in Type-I errors due to multiple statistical comparisons.

    “Due to the multiple statistical comparisons, Bonferroni-Finner correction was included to avoid the increase in Type-I errors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The SCL-90-R has been validated in a Spanish sample, with mean internal consistency α = 0.75.

    “The SCL has been validated in a Spanish sample obtaining a mean internal consistency of α = 0.75 (Derogatis, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Derogatis, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The study only included one self-report measure of FA.

    “our study only included one self-report measure of FA”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Sensation seeking may be related rather to non-clinical drug use than to an actual addiction.

    “It has been proposed that sensation seeking may be related rather to non-clinical drug use, than to an actual addiction (Torres et al., 2013)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Torres et al., 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Harm avoidance is common to all ED subtypes and significantly higher in patients compared to controls.

    “Research has shown that harm avoidance is common to all ED subtypes and significantly higher in patients compared to controls (Cassin and Von Ranson, 2005; Lilenfeld et al., 2006; Atiye et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cassin and Von Ranson, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lilenfeld et al., 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Atiye et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    FA may merely be an index of ED severity.

    “It has been formerly suggested that FA may merely be an index of ED severity (Davis, 2013; Gearhardt et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Davis, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gearhardt et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Risk factors for suffering FA have been established in different samples, including students, obese women with overeating problems, and ED patients.

    “Until now, risk factors for suffering FA have been established in different samples, e.g., students (Murphy et al., 2014; Pivarunas and Conner, 2015), obese women with overeating problems (Bégin et al., 2012) or in ED patients (Gearhardt et al., 2013; Granero et al., 2014; Meule et al., 2014b)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Murphy et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pivarunas and Conner, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bégin et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study is cross-sectional; we cannot definitely conclude if the personality traits found to be related to FA precede or succeed FA symptoms, or if both have one common cause.

    “It is important to bear in mind the cross-sectional nature of our study; we cannot definitely conclude if the personality traits found to be related to FA precede or succeed FA symptoms, or if both have one common cause.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    High novelty seeking and low self-directedness are reported transdiagnostically for different drugs and non-substance-related addictions.

    “high novelty seeking and low self-directedness was reported transdiagnostically for different drugs (Le Bon et al., 2004; Pedrero Pérez and Rojo Mota, 2008) and non-substance related addictions (Alvarez-Moya et al., 2007)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Le Bon et al., 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pedrero Pérez and Rojo Mota, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Alvarez-Moya et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The subscale "unable to cut down or stop" seems to be systematically misunderstood by AN patients, possibly due to their subjective feeling of eating too much.

    “the subscale “unable to cut down or stop” seems to be systematically misunderstood by AN patients, possibly due to their subjective feeling of eating too much.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
29 of 29

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Food addiction is comparable to other substance and/or behavioral addictions.

    “Assuming that FA is comparable to other (substance and/or behavioral) addictions, it is expectable that, after controlling for ED subtypes, patients having a positive FA screening will have more addictive-like personality traits than those who do not fulfill the YFAS criteria for FA.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a lack of literature analyzing personality vulnerabilities underlying food addiction.

    “However, there is a lack of literature analyzing personality vulnerabilities underlying FA.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is no clear agreement about whether food addiction is a valid and necessary concept, specifically in the domain of eating disorders.

    “Until now there is no clear agreement about the question if FA is a valid and necessary concept, specifically in the domain of EDs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No study has explored which would be the highest risk population for presenting FA.

    “but no study has explored which would be the highest risk population for presenting FA.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Discussion reverses the lack-of-premeditation predictor

    Major

    The discussion describes higher lack of premeditation as a predictor of a positive screening, but the final regression coefficient is negative (B = -0.069). The model therefore associates lower, not higher, scores with greater odds of a positive screening.

  • Discussion reverses the negative-urgency result

    Major

    The discussion says the supported hypothesis was lower negative urgency in patients with food addiction. Table 2 instead reports higher negative-urgency scores in the food-addiction-positive group (34.39 versus 29.68).

  • Positive-screening threshold changes from at least three to more than three criteria

    Minor

    The assessment section defines a positive YFAS screening as meeting at least three criteria plus clinical significance. The statistical-analysis section instead defines the modeled outcome as meeting more than three criteria plus clinical significance, which would exclude patients meeting exactly three.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Derogatis, 1994, SCL-90-R Symptom Checklist-90-R. Administration, Scoring and Procedures Manual.
  2. First, 1996, Users Guide for the Structural Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders – Research Version (SCID-I, Version 2.0).
  3. Garner, 1998, Inventario de Trastornos de la Conducta Alimentaria (EDI-2)—Manual.

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Wolz, I., Hilker, I., Granero, R., Jiménez-Murcia, S., Gearhardt, A. N., Dieguez, C., Casanueva, F. F., Crujeiras, A. B., Menchón, J. M., & Fernández-Aranda, F.
Affiliations
  • Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (ES)
  • University of Michigan (US)
  • Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ES)
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Psychology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2016-02-02
Volume
7
Pages
61-61
ISSN
1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00061
PMC
PMC4735728
OpenAlex
W2294318322
Semantic Scholar
4a4a9d6418b70d080f5baf1d0ff2e3f73844286e
Cited by
70
References
78
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 5
FWCI
11.59
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Dipòsit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona (Universitat de Barcelona) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • RECERCAT (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • Dipòsit Digital de Documents de la UAB (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Agència de Gestió d’Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca (2014FI_B 00372)
  • Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
Keywords
food addiction, eating disorders, negative urgency, impulsivity, personality traits, self-direction, lack of perseverance, reward dependence, lack of premeditation, prediction model

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