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Effect of Cold Storage and Reheating of Parboiled Rice on Postprandial Glycaemic Response, Satiety, Palatability and Chewed Particle Size Distribution

Open access
Lu, Louise, Venn, Bernard, Lu, Jun, Monro, John, Rush, Elaine·2017·Nutrients
DOI 10.3390/nu9050475PMC PMC5452205

Published version of a preprint

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Abstract

Background: Globally, hot cooked refined rice is consumed in large quantities and is a major contributor to dietary glycaemic load. This study aimed to compare the glycaemic potency of hot- and cold-stored parboiled rice to widely available medium-grain white rice. Method: Twenty-eight healthy volunteers participated in a three-treatment experiment where postprandial blood glucose was measured over 120 min after consumption of 140 g of rice. The three rice samples were freshly cooked medium-grain white rice, freshly cooked parboiled rice, and parboiled rice stored overnight at 4 °C. All rice was served warm at 65 °C. Chewing time was recorded. Results: incremental area under the curve (iAUC) of the control rice, freshly cooked medium-grain white rice, was the highest: 1.7-fold higher (1.2, 2.6) than reheated parboiled rice (p < 0.001) and 1.5-fold higher (1.0, 2.2) than freshly cooked parboiled rice (p = 0.001). No significant difference in postprandial glycaemic response was observed between freshly cooked and reheated parboiled rice samples (p = 0.445). Chewing time for 10 g cold-stored parboiled rice was 6 s (25%) longer and was considered more palatable, visually appealing and better tasting than freshly cooked medium-grain (all p < 0.05). Conclusions: For regular consumers of rice, reheating cooked rice after cold storage would lower the dietary glycaemic load and, in the long term, may reduce the risk for type 2 and gestational diabetes. More trials are needed to identify the significance.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a randomized crossover trial of 28 healthy adults, freshly cooked medium-grain white rice produced a higher postprandial glucose iAUC than both freshly cooked and cold-stored/reheated parboiled rice, while reheated parboiled rice did not differ significantly from freshly cooked parboiled rice. Reheated parboiled rice required longer chewing and was rated more palatable than the control rice.

Key findings

  • The control rice, freshly cooked medium-grain white rice, had the highest iAUC: 1.7-fold higher (1.2, 2.6) than reheated parboiled rice (p < 0.001) and 1.5-fold higher (1.0, 2.2) than freshly cooked parboiled rice (p = 0.001). No significant difference was observed between freshly cooked and reheated parboiled rice (p = 0.445).
  • Chewing time for reheated parboiled rice averaged 33.1 s (95% CI: 32.1, 34.1), 6.3 s longer than freshly cooked medium-grain white rice (26.8 s; p = 0.026) and 5.3 s longer than freshly cooked parboiled rice (27.8 s; p = 0.723).
  • At 60 min, the “How hungry do you feel?” VAS score for reheated parboiled rice was 1.3 cm lower than freshly cooked medium-grain white rice (p = 0.026) and 1.2 cm lower than freshly cooked parboiled rice (p = 0.033); overall satiety responses did not differ significantly among the three rice samples.
  • Reheated parboiled rice had higher palatability ratings: visual appearance was about 2.0 times higher than freshly cooked medium-grain white rice (p < 0.001) and 1.7 times higher than freshly cooked parboiled rice (p = 0.003); overall preference was higher than both control (p = 0.003) and freshly cooked parboiled rice (p = 0.012).

Methods

  • Randomized crossover study in 28 healthy adults (18 females, 10 males; mean ages 22.1 and 25.3 years) in Dunedin, New Zealand; participants consumed 140 g of one of three rice samples on separate days one week apart: freshly cooked medium-grain white rice, freshly cooked parboiled rice, or parboiled rice cold-stored at 4 °C for 24 h and reheated to 65 °C.
  • Postprandial blood glucose was measured at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min; satiety and palatability were assessed with visual analogue scales; chewing time and chewed particle size distribution were measured after a 10.6 ± 0.1 g rice sample was chewed and expectorated, then sieved into >2000 μm, 2000–1400 μm, 1400–425 μm, and <425 μm fractions.
  • iAUC and satiety AUC were calculated by the trapezoidal rule; repeated-measures ANOVA compared rice treatments, and univariate regression models with a random effect for participants examined associations with age, sex, BMI, particle distribution, chewing time, satiety, and palatability.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: each condition, including the chewed sample, was measured only once; the study was relatively small and applicable only to these specific rice brands and cooking methods; the convenience sample may not represent the general population; variation among rice brands, origin, storage, humidity, and cooking methods needs further study with more participants; chewed particle size was impossible to control, and net energy of the rice meals was not monitored.
  • Stated in the paper: only one heating–cooling cycle was applied, and reheating to 65 °C might have reversed retrogradation by breaking some amylopectin crystallites, potentially lessening any effect on glycaemic response.
  • Evident from the text: the study did not directly measure gastric emptying, insulin secretion, or gut hormones, so proposed mechanisms for the observed glycaemic and satiety effects remain inferential.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/nu9050475

Cites

39 of 39 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

12 of 36 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Three previous studies found lower glycaemic response in freshly prepared parboiled rice samples compared with non-parboiled rice.

    “Three previous studies, by Wolever [13], Larsen [14], and Chitra [15], have investigated the commercially obtained parboiled rice products (processed by modernised parboiling process) and found lower glycaemic response in the freshly prepared parboiled rice samples compared with non-parboiled”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [13] Wolever, 1986, The use of the glycemic index in predicting the blood glucose response to mixed meals, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. source
    • cites [14] Larsen, 2000, Glycaemic index of parboiled rice depends on the severity of processing: Study in type 2 diabetic subjects, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. source
    • cites [15] Chitra, 2010, Effect of processing paddy on digestibility of rice starch by in vitro studies, J. Food Sci. Technol. source

      The Materials and methods section says the authors prepared parboiled rice in the laboratory rather than testing commercially obtained parboiled rice products. The Starch content section compares parboiled with raw rice, but measures in vitro starch digestibility, not glycaemic response; it reports higher digestibility for parboiled rice. Thus the comparison is supported, but the attributed finding of lower glycaemic response in freshly prepared samples is not. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Satiety was not measured in the three previous studies of parboiled rice glycaemic response.

    “but satiety was not measured in these studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [13] Wolever, 1986, The use of the glycemic index in predicting the blood glucose response to mixed meals, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. source
    • cites [14] Larsen, 2000, Glycaemic index of parboiled rice depends on the severity of processing: Study in type 2 diabetic subjects, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. source
    • cites [15] Chitra, 2010, Effect of processing paddy on digestibility of rice starch by in vitro studies, J. Food Sci. Technol. source

      The Materials and methods and Conclusion sections describe an in vitro study of rice starch digestibility, not three studies of parboiled-rice glycaemic response. Searches for satiety and for those glycaemic-response studies found no passage establishing whether satiety was measured in them. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Longer chewing time is associated with a slower glycaemic response.

    “Others have also found that a longer chewing time is associated with the slower glycaemic response [18,29].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [18] Kataoka, 2013, Glycaemic responses to glucose and rice in people of Chinese and European ethnicity, Diabet. Med. source
    • cites [29] Madhu, 2016, Mastication Frequency and Postprandial Blood Sugar Levels in Normoglycaemic and Dysglycaemic Individuals: A Cross-Sectional Comparative Study, J. Clin. Diagn. Res. source

      The Results report lower blood glucose two hours after thorough chewing in normoglycaemic participants, but little effect in dysglycaemic participants. The study varied the number of chews per morsel; it did not measure chewing time or establish that the glycaemic response was slower. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    In insulin-impaired participants, a shorter chewing time was associated with a greater glycaemic response compared with participants with normal insulin tolerance and extended chewing time (Suzuki et al., 2005).

    “In 2005, Suzuki et al. [30] found that the insulin-impaired participants showed a greater glycaemic response after shorter chewing time compared with participants with normal insulin tolerance and extended chewing time”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Suzuki, 2005, Effects of thorough mastication on postprandial plasma glucose concentrations in nonobese Japanese subjects, Metabolism source

      The paper’s summary (pp. 788–789) reports that extended chewing lowered postprandial glucose in the normal-glucose-tolerance group. It also reports that, in the diabetes/prediabetes group, extended chewing increased glucose relative to shorter chewing. It does not report the claimed direct comparison between impaired participants chewing for less time and normal participants chewing for longer. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    Mean incremental blood glucose concentration was significantly lower in reheated parboiled rice compared to freshly cooked medium-grain white rice at 15, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min.

    “The repeated measures ANOVA test showed that the mean incremental blood glucose concentration (mmol/L) was significantly lower in reheated parboiled rice compared to freshly cooked medium-grain white rice at 15 min (−0.4 mmol/L, p = 0.015), at 45 min (−0.5 mmol/L, p = 0.018), at 60 min (−0.8 mmol/L, p = 0.001), at 90 min (−0.8 mmol/L, p < 0.001), and at 120 min (−0.4 mmol/L, p = 0.001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 37
  • May combine two claims. 22
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Participants were significantly more hungry at 30 min after high amylose rice with higher RS content compared to low amylose rice with lower RS (Zenel et al.).

    “Zenel et al. found that participants were significantly more hungry at 30 min after high amylose rice with higher RS content compared to low amylose rice with lower RS [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Zenel, 2015, High amylose white rice reduces post-prandial glycemic response but not appetite in humans, Nutrients source

      The Results (section 3.5, Appetite; page unavailable) report significantly greater hunger at 30 minutes after Dixiebelle than after Rondo—not after high-amylose rice than after the conventional short-grain rice. Both Dixiebelle and Rondo are identified as high-amylose cultivars in section 2.2, so the cited comparison is not a high- versus low-amylose comparison. (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Previous in vitro digestion studies have shown that freshly cooked warm rice was digested more rapidly than cold-stored and reheated rice, and minced-reheated parboiled rice was more resistant to digestion.

    “Previous in vitro digestion studies have also shown that freshly cooked warm rice was digested more rapidly than cold-stored and reheated rice and minced-reheated parboiled rice was more resistant to digestion [12].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Lu, 2016, Effect of Cold Storage, Reheating, and Particle Sizes on In Vitro Glucose Release and Starch Digestibility among Five Rice Products in Auckland, New Zealand, J. Rice Res. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Each rice sample was consumed on separate days one week apart from the previous study day to minimise any possible ordering effect.

    “Each rice sample was consumed on separate days one week apart from the previous study day to minimise any possible ordering effect [24].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Brouns, 2005, Glycaemic index methodology, Nutr. Res. Rev. source

      The sections on washout periods and order effects support testing foods on separate days and considering order effects in glycaemic-index studies. They do not describe rice samples tested one week apart or say that a one-week interval minimises order effects; the paper discusses randomisation for that purpose. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Previous in vitro experiments and an in vivo study reported that particle size decrease exposes more surface area to digestive enzymes, resulting in an increase in the rate of digestion.

    “Previous in vitro experiments [12] and an in vivo study [16] reported that particle size decrease exposes more surface area to digestive enzymes, resulting in an increase in the rate of digestion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] Lu, 2016, Effect of Cold Storage, Reheating, and Particle Sizes on In Vitro Glucose Release and Starch Digestibility among Five Rice Products in Auckland, New Zealand, J. Rice Res. source

      The Discussion says smaller particles make starch more accessible to amylase and allow digestion to begin more quickly; the results also report more rapidly digestible starch in minced than intact rice. However, the Discussion explicitly limits this study to in vitro laboratory conditions. It therefore supports the digestion mechanism, but not its description as an in vivo study. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [16] Ranawana, 2010, Degree of particle size breakdown during mastication may be a possible cause of interindividual glycemic variability, Nutr. Res. source

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    The degree of chewing might have a direct and positive effect on the rate of in vivo digestion and the glycaemic response.

    “which confirmed that the degree of chewing might have a direct and positive effect on the rate of in vivo digestion and the glycaemic response.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Suzuki, 2005, Effects of thorough mastication on postprandial plasma glucose concentrations in nonobese Japanese subjects, Metabolism source

      The paper’s summary (p. 788) reports that thorough chewing affected post-meal blood glucose, but the direction differed by group: glucose fell in participants with normal glucose tolerance and rose in the prediabetes/diabetes group. It measured glucose and insulin, not the rate of in vivo digestion, so it does not establish that part of the claim or a uniformly positive glycaemic effect. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The key determinants of the postprandial blood glucose response are the amount, rate and extent of carbohydrate digestion, insulin secretory response, and gastric emptying.

    “The key determinants of the postprandial blood glucose response are the amount, rate and extent of carbohydrate digestion [4], insulin secretory response [5] and gastric emptying [6,7].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [4] Wolever, 2010, Analysis of glycemic index methodology, J. AOAC Int.
    • cites [5] Grundy, 2012, Pre-diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular risk, J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. source
    • cites [6] Phillips, 2015, Gastric emptying and glycaemia in health and diabetes mellitus, Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. source
    • cites [7] Zhu, Y., Hsu, W., and Hollis, J. (2013). The impact of food viscosity on eating rate, subjective appetite, glycemic response and gastric emptying rate. PLoS ONE, 8. source

      Citation [6,7] is attached to gastric emptying, not to the other listed determinants. The Introduction proposes that delayed gastrointestinal transit may affect postprandial glycemia, and the Discussion reports both slower gastric emptying and higher glucose after the high-viscosity meal. The paper does not establish gastric emptying independently as a key determinant of the glucose response. (LLM, conf=0.80)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Longer chewing may decrease self-reported hunger and possibly alter the gut hormone response related to satiety.

    “A recent systematic review further suggested that longer chewing may decrease self-reported hunger and possibly alter the gut hormone response related to satiety [34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Hetherington, 2015, Effects of chewing on appetite, food intake and gut hormones: A systematic review and meta-analysis, Physiol. Behav. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Cold-stored parboiled rice was considered more visually appealing than freshly cooked medium-grain white rice.

    “and was considered more palatable, visually appealing and better tasting than freshly cooked medium-grain (all p < 0.05).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Chewing time for 10 g cold-stored parboiled rice was 6 s (25%) longer than for freshly cooked medium-grain white rice.

    “Chewing time for 10 g cold-stored parboiled rice was 6 s (25%) longer”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Compared with freshly cooked white rice, reheated cold-stored parboiled rice and freshly cooked parboiled rice reduced the postprandial glycaemic response.

    “Compared with freshly cooked white rice, reheated cold-stored parboiled rice and freshly cooked parboiled rice reduced the postprandial glycaemic response and extended the chewing time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No effect on satiety of reheating parboiled rice compared to the other two rice samples was found, despite significantly different iAUC of blood glucose responses.

    “However, we did not find an effect on satiety of reheating the parboiled rice compared to the other two rice samples despite the significantly different iAUC of blood glucose responses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    For each particle diameter, the same sieve was used each time to minimise cumulative errors and reduce variability.

    “For each diameter, the same sieve was used each time to minimise cumulative errors and reduce variability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Fasting blood glucose concentrations were similar prior to consumption of each of the three rice meals and were not significantly different (F = 1.020, p = 0.356).

    “Among all experimental treatments, the fasting blood glucose concentrations were similar prior to consumption of each of the three rice meals (freshly cooked medium-grain white, 4.9 (95% Confidence Interval (CI): 4.8, 5.1) mmol/L; freshly cooked parboiled rice, 5.0 (95% CI: 4.8, 5.1) mmol/L; reheated parboiled rice, 4.8 (95% CI: 4.7, 5.0) mmol/L; Table 1) and were not significantly different (F =”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Satiety was recorded using a modified version of a validated visual analogue scale (VAS).

    “Satiety was recorded by participants at 0 (before rice consumption), 30, 60, 90 and 120 min using a modified version of a validated VAS.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    To control for BMI effects on glycaemic responses and to broaden generalisability, around half of the participants were screened for normal weight and half for being overweight or obese.

    “To control for body mass index (BMI) effects on glycaemic responses and to broaden generalisability, around half of the participants were screened for normal weight and half for being overweight or obese (WHO criteria).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    All 28 volunteers completed the three study visits.

    “All 28 volunteers completed the three study visits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The randomisation order was determined using a random number generator.

    “The randomisation was determined using a random number generator.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Both rice products were from the same batch to avoid inter-batch variation.

    “Both rice products were from the same batch to avoid inter-batch variation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the University of Otago Ethics Committee (12/333) and the AUT Ethics Committee (EA13/05).

    “Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the University of Otago Ethics Committee (12/333) and the AUT Ethics Committee (EA13/05).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The particle sizes were chosen based on a previous study carried out in the same laboratory.

    “These particle sizes were chosen based on a previous study carried out in the same laboratory as this investigation [16].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Ranawana, 2010, Degree of particle size breakdown during mastication may be a possible cause of interindividual glycemic variability, Nutr. Res. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The crystallised starch form can resist enzymatic degradation in the small intestine for up to three hours and spontaneously lower the concentration of digestible starch in cooked rice.

    “This crystallised starch form can resist enzymatic degradation in the small intestine for up to three hours [10] and spontaneously lower the concentration of digestible starch in cooked rice [11].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [10] Sajilata, 2006, Resistant starch—A review, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source
    • cites [11] Riva, 2000, Starch retrogradation in cooked pasta and rice, Cereal Chem. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    No significant difference was found between the two BMI groups in fasting blood glucose (p = 0.589).

    “No significant difference was found between the two BMI groups in fasting blood glucose (p = 0.589).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Blood glucose analysers were calibrated using an instrument-matched calibration cuvette and checked for accuracy and reliability using three concentrations of control solutions.

    “Analysers were calibrated using an instrument-matched calibration cuvette, and checked for accuracy and reliability using three concentrations of control solutions (2.0 mmol/L, 4.5 mmol/L and 8.0 mmol/L) provided by the HemoCue manufacturer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    After completion of each questionnaire, it was turned face down on the desk to prevent participants from reviewing the previous results.

    “After completion of each questionnaire, it was turned face down on the desk to prevent participants from reviewing the previous results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    On each experiment day, the study controlled test meal volumes, restricted consumption time to less than five minutes, ensured all rice meals were fully gelatinised, and ensured rice grains retained their original shape when served, to minimise influences on glycaemic response and satiating power.

    “On each experiment day, the volumes of the test meals were similar, the time spent on consuming the meals was restricted to less than five minutes, all rice meals were fully gelatinised, and the rice grains all retained their original shape when they were served to participants to minimise the influences on glycaemic response and satiating power of each rice meal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A bolus with finer particles reduces the viscosity of gastric content, increases pyloric outflow, increases sedimentation of solids in liquids, and promotes the antrum to preferentially empty liquids faster than solids.

    “A bolus with finer particles reduces the viscosity of gastric content and increases pyloric outflow, thus increases sedimentation of solids in liquids, and promotes the ability of the antrum to preferentially empty liquids faster than solids [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Bornhorst, 2012, Bolus formation and disintegration during digestion of food carbohydrates, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participant compliance was high and all participants completed all measurements.

    “Participant compliance was high and all participants completed all measurements.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The study followed the cold storage and reheating method from the New Zealand Food Safety Authority guidelines, which indicate safe practice for preparing boiled rice to stop Bacillus cereus growth during storage and stop toxin production.

    “One strength of this study is that it followed the cold storage and reheating method from the New Zealand Food Safety Authority guidelines, which has indicated the safe practice of preparing boiled rice to stop Bacillus cereus growth during storage and stop toxin production.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The degree of particle size reduction and its impact on glucose response among rice varieties have not been investigated previously.

    “The degree of particle size reduction and its impact on glucose response among rice varieties have not been investigated previously.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    This relatively small study is only applicable to these specific brands of rice cooked in this specific way.

    “However, this relatively small study is only applicable to these specific brands of rice cooked in this specific way.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The two factors that might have affected the gastric emptying rate, glycaemic response, and the feelings of satiety and palatability are the chewed particle size and the net energy of the rice meals served to each participant.

    “The two factors that might have affected the gastric emptying rate, glycaemic response, and the feelings of satiety and palatability are the chewed particle size and the net energy of the rice meals served to each participant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The design of the primary experiment was based on glycaemic index (GI) methodology but used a one-cup serving of rice to reflect the quantity of rice usually eaten rather than a standard dose of carbohydrate.

    “The design of the primary experiment was based on glycaemic index (GI) methodology but used a one-cup serving of rice [20] to reflect the quantity of rice usually eaten rather than a standard dose of carbohydrate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Venn, 2006, The glycemic load estimated from the glycemic index does not differ greatly from that measured using a standard curve in healthy volunteers, J. Nutr. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For regular consumers of parboiled rice, reheating cooked rice after cold storage would lower the dietary glycaemic load and, in the long term, may reduce the risk for type 2 and gestational diabetes.

    “For regular consumers of parboiled rice, preferably reheating cooked rice after cold storage would lower the dietary glycaemic load and, in the long term, may reduce the risk for type 2 and gestational diabetes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Lowering dietary glycaemic load reduces the long-term risk for type 2 and gestational diabetes.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants were advised to continue their usual daily activities without engaging in vigorous exercise or consuming food containing high fat, high sugar, or alcohol during the study period.

    “Participants were advised to continue their usual daily activities without engaging in vigorous exercise or consuming food containing high fat, high sugar, or alcohol during the study period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There was no significant difference in appetite between short-grain rice and high RS rice in healthy adults (Chiu et al.).

    “In a study by Chiu et al., it was reported that there was no significant difference in appetite between short-grain rice and high RS rice in healthy adults [33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Chiu, 2013, Effect of variety and cooking method on resistant starch content of white rice and subsequent postprandial glucose response and appetite in humans, Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The group of participants consumed a serving of each rice sample on separate experiment days (seven days apart) to minimise possible intra-individual variation and to improve precision.

    “The group of participants consumed a serving of each rice sample on separate experiment days (seven days apart) to minimise possible intra-individual variation and to improve precision.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Each condition, including the chewed sample, was measured only once.

    “Limitations of the study include that each condition, including the chewed sample, was measured only once.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cooked rice should be removed from the hot container, spread into a clean shallow container (<10 cm deep), and placed in a refrigerator at 4 °C or lower to be cooled quickly and evenly to prevent bacteria growth and toxin production.

    “The Ministry for Primary Industries [19] advised that cooked rice should be removed from the hot container and spread into a clean shallow container (<10 cm deep) and then placed in a refrigerator at 4 °C or lower to be cooled quickly and evenly to prevent bacteria growth and toxin production.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Ministry for Primary Industries (2017, May 09). Safe Cooling of Cooked Rice, Available online: http://www.foodsafety.govt.nz/elibrary/industry/safe_cooling-cooked_rice.htm.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The volunteers may not necessarily be representative of the population at large, and some unrecognized attributes of this convenience sample could explain the marked differences in glycaemic responses among the three rice samples.

    “It should be acknowledged that the volunteers may not necessarily be representative of the population at large that some unrecognized attributes of this convenience sample could explain the marked differences in glycaemic responses among three rice samples.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cooked rice may be kept for a short time at more than 60 °C or cooled quickly and stored for up to one day.

    “The cooked rice may be kept for a short time at more than 60 °C or cooled quickly and stored for up to one day [35].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Lake, R., Hudson, A., and Cressey, P. (2004). Risk Profile: Bacillus Spp. in Rice, Institute of Environmental Science & Research Limited.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mastication habits vary widely among individuals but show relatively consistent patterns within an individual when a single food has been tested.

    “Mastication habits vary widely among individuals but show relatively consistent patterns within an individual when a single food has been tested [16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Ranawana, 2010, Degree of particle size breakdown during mastication may be a possible cause of interindividual glycemic variability, Nutr. Res. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The effect of habitual mastication and the degree of particle size reduction on glucose responses of a single food has been investigated in previous studies.

    “The effect of habitual mastication and the degree of particle size reduction on glucose responses of a single food has been investigated in previous studies [16,17,18].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [16] Ranawana, 2010, Degree of particle size breakdown during mastication may be a possible cause of interindividual glycemic variability, Nutr. Res. source
    • cites [17] Ranawana, 2014, Mastication effects on the glycaemic index: Impact on variability and practical implications, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. source
    • cites [18] Kataoka, 2013, Glycaemic responses to glucose and rice in people of Chinese and European ethnicity, Diabet. Med. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study followed a glycaemic response method whose precision and validity were tested and validated by previous studies.

    “Another strength of this study is that it followed a glycaemic response method whose precision and validity were tested and validated by previous studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    This study was conducted according to the guidelines of the human ethics committees of the University of Otago and the Auckland University of Technology (AUT).

    “This study was conducted according to the guidelines of the human ethics committees of the University of Otago and the Auckland University of Technology (AUT).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Each day, participants reported at 6 a.m., after a 10 h overnight fast.

    “Each day, participants reported at 6 a.m., after a 10 h overnight fast”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants were asked to consume the rice samples at their normal chewing speed.

    “Participants were asked to consume the rice samples at their normal chewing speed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
46 of 46

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cooling cooked rice to low temperatures by refrigeration transforms gelatinised rice starch from an amorphous state to a more ordered crystalline state that persists on reheating.

    “Cooling cooked rice to low temperatures by refrigeration transforms gelatinised rice starch from an amorphous state to a more ordered state (i.e., crystalline state) that persists on reheating.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Lowering dietary glycaemic load reduces the long-term risk for type 2 and gestational diabetes.

    “For regular consumers of parboiled rice, preferably reheating cooked rice after cold storage would lower the dietary glycaemic load and, in the long term, may reduce the risk for type 2 and gestational diabetes.”
2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Boers review is cited as reference 27, but reference 27 is a different paper

    Minor

    The text attributes a systematic review to Boers et al. and cites reference 27. The reference list identifies 27 as a paper by Heinemann et al.; the Boers review is listed as reference 25.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 40 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Lu, L., Venn, B., Lu, J., Monro, J., & Rush, E.
Affiliations
  • University of Auckland (NZ)
  • University of Otago (NZ)
  • Auckland University of Technology (NZ)
  • Plant & Food Research (NZ)
Corresponding author
Lu, Louise
ORCID
Venue
Nutrients
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2017-05-10
Volume
9
Issue
5
Pages
475
ISSN
2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/nu9050475
PMC
PMC5452205
OpenAlex
W2613799402
Semantic Scholar
28f7d618272ef19b4304d12e2e1d4ced07007c5c
Cited by
44
References
40
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 2
FWCI
2.13
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Preprints.org (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Tuwhera (Auckland University of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • ResearchSpace (University of Auckland) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Food composition and properties
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Consumer Attitudes and Food Labeling
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Potato Plant Research
Keywords
parboiled rice, cold storage, reheating, postprandial glycemic response, glycemic load, satiety, palatability, chewing time, particle size distribution, type 2 diabetes risk, gestational diabetes mellitus
MeSH terms
Adult, Blood Glucose, Cold Temperature, Female, Hot Temperature, Humans, Male, Particle Size, Oryza, Satiety Response, Taste, Postprandial Period, Young Adult, Food Storage

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-17.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-17.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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