A Review of Blockchain Architecture and Consensus Protocols: Use Cases, Challenges, and Solutions

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Over the last decade, many blockchain platforms with different architectures and consensus protocols have been introduced.

“Many platforms, with different architectures and consensus protocols, have been introduced.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “Since its introduction in 2008 [2], the blockchain platforms and consensus protocols have proliferated, due to the evolution of collaborative applications in smart cities, such as healthcare and governance, as well as the need of green and cost-efficient computing.”

May combine two claims.

Miners compete in mining a block to win the incentives, which exacerbates the energy consumption problem.

“Miners compete in mining a block to win the incentives which exacerbates the energy consumption problem.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The bitcoin network implementing PoW currently has the throughput of 4-7 transactions per second.

“The bitcoin network implementing PoW currently has the throughput of 4-7 transactions per second.”

May combine two claims.

A ledger is replicated among the majority of network members, which increases the computational and communication overhead.

“In addition, scalability has to be addressed in a blockchain architecture as a ledger is replicated among the majority network members.This increases the computational and communication overhead.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Compute-intensive based consensus protocols are energy-hungry mining algorithms.

“Compute-intensive based consensus protocols are energy-hungry mining algorithms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

PoB favors the rich and has not been tested for its performance.

“PoB favors the rich and has not been tested for its performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Prime number PoW has not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats.

“In addition, this consensus protocol has not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

PoSV has not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats.

“Moreover, the protocol still favors the rich and has not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The DPoS protocol does not consider the case where each node votes for itself.

“The protocol does not consider the case where each node votes for itself.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The DPoW consensus protocol has not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats.

“Moreover, the consensus protocol has not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

DPoS has not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats.

“It has not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats and does not solve the issue of reduced transaction flow of PoS.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

PoS has not been tested yet for its performance.

“Also, this consensus protocol has not been tested yet for its performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

All possible solutions to scalability are still under development and are not tested for different existing blockchain networks.

“However, all the possible solutions are still under development and are not tested for different existing blockchain networks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Very few consensus protocols discussed in this section have been evaluated for their performance and security threats.

“Moreover, Very few consensus protocols discussed in this section have been evaluated for its performance and security threats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

For the moment there is no work in the literature comparing the performance evaluation of all consensus algorithms in a unified experimental environment and setup.

“For the moment there is no work in the literature comparing the performance evaluation of all the consensus algorithms in an unified experimental environment and setup.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

These protocols are evaluated using different experimental environments and setups for different blockchain networks.

“However, these protocols are evaluated using different experimental environment and setup for different blockchain networks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Tier 4.0 was initiated in 2018 to solve interoperability issues.

“However, due to the need of interoperability in a rapidly evolving collaborative ecosystem, Tier 4.0 was initiated in 2018 to solve interoperability issues [33].”

• cites [33] Joshi, 2018, A survey on security and privacy issues of blockchain technology, Math. Found. Comput. sourceNot checked yet

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Private blockchain, also called permissioned, is an invite-only network from an authentication authority.

“Private blockchain, also called permissioned, is an invite-only network from an authentication authority [1].”

• cites [1] Zheng, 2018, Blockchain challenges and opportunities: A survey, Int. J. Web Grid Serv. sourceNot checked yet

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A blockchain architecture is either public-centric or private-centric.

“A blockchain architecture is either public-centric or private-centric.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

It is challenging for an application developer to choose the right blockchain platform.

“Consequently, it becomes challenging for an application developer to chose the right platform.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “Therefore, it becomes difficult for an application developer to chose the right platform.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Public blockchain, often referred to as permission-less blockchain, allows anyone to join the blockchain network without permission.

“Public blockchain, often referred to as permission-less blockchain, allows anyone to join the blockchain network without permission [1].”

• cites [1] Zheng, 2018, Blockchain challenges and opportunities: A survey, Int. J. Web Grid Serv. sourceNot checked yet

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The initial implementation of blockchain in 2008 for transfer of cryptocurrencies in a public network is known as Tier 1.0.

“The initial implementation of the blockchain in 2008 for the transfer of cryptocurrencies in a public network is known as Tier 1.0 [31].”

• cites [31] (2019, January 03). Seele: Blockchain 4.0 or Marketing?—CoinAnnouncer. Available online: https://www.coinannouncer.com/seele-blockchain-4-0-or-marketing/.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In 2017, bitcoin mining used around 30.14 TWh of energy, equivalent to the energy usage of the entire Ireland in a year.

“In 2017, the bitcoin mining used around 30.14 TerraWatt hours (TWh) of energy, which is equivalent to energy usage of the entire Ireland in a year [3].”

• cites [3] (2019, January 08). Bitcoin Mining Consumes More Electricity a Year than Ireland|Technology|The Guardian. Available online: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/nov/27/bitcoin-mining-consumes-electricity-ireland.Not checked yet

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Tier 3.0 came up in 2015 for the development of applications in a private network.

“Consequently, Tier 3.0 came up in 2015 for the development of applications in a private network.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Blockchain has evolved to serve decentralized applications.

“Originally developed for transfer of digital currency without relying on intermediaries [2], blockchain has evolved to serve decentralized applications.”

• cites [2] Nakamoto, S. (2019, September 22). Bitcoin: A Peer-To-Peer Electronic Cash System. Available online: https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf.Not checked yet

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Blockchain architecture can be divided into four layers: infrastructure, platform, distributed computing, and application.

“We divide the blockchain architecture in four layers: infrastructure, platform, distributed computing, and application.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Tier 2.0 was introduced in 2013 to facilitate digital transfer of non-financial assets using smart contracts.

“Later in 2013, Tier 2.0 was introduced to facilitate digital transfer of non-financial assets using smart contracts [32].”

• cites [32] (2019, January 18). Pseudonymity. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudonymity.Not checked yet

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The paper is the first to present a detailed systematic survey of blockchain along with a taxonomy of platform architectures and 21 consensus protocols.

“To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to present a detailed systematic survey of blockchain along with a taxonomy of platforms architectures and 21 consensus protocols.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Annual carbon dioxide emissions by the bitcoin network are as high as 22.9 million metric tons, almost equivalent to the amount produced by countries like Sri Lanka and Jordan.

“According to a research, the annual carbon dioxide emissions by the bitcoin network are as high as 22.9 million metric tons, almost equivalent to the amount produced by the countries like Sri Lanka and Jordan [4].”

• cites [4] Stoll, C., Klaaßen, L., and Gallersdörfer, U. (2019). The Carbon Footprint of Bitcoin. Joule. sourceNot checked yet

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In 2015, the blockchain platform Multichain introduced the process of handshaking.

“In 2015, the blockchain platform Multichain [38] introduced the process of handshaking as follows:”

• cites [38] (2018, December 29). Chain Core. Available online: https://chain.com/docs/1.2/core/get-started/introduction.Not checked yet

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The identity of a network participant is kept pseudo-anonymous using a public key.

“The identity of a network participant is kept pseudo-anonymous [34] using a public key where the participant's real identity is kept unknown and recognized by a pseudo name.”

• cites [34] Buterin, V. (2019, September 22). A Next-Generation Smart Contract and Decentralized Application Platform—White Paper. Available online: http://blockchainlab.com/pdf/Ethereum_white_paper-a_next_generation_smart_contract_and_decentralized_application_platform-vitalik-buterin.pdf.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A blockchain network is not controlled by any single authority, so a transaction is verified after reaching consensus by the majority of the network participants.

“Because a blockchain network is not controlled by any single authority, a transaction is verified after reaching a consensus by the majority of the network participants.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A blockchain network is not controlled by any single authority.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Transactions can be compressed using a lossless compression algorithm called Deflate, a combination of LZ77 and Huffman algorithms, as introduced by the blockchain development platform Credits.

“In that case, transactions can be compressed as introduced by the blockchain development platform Credits [55].The transaction are compressed using a lossless compress algorithm, called Deflate; a combination of LZ77 [56] and Huffman algorithms [57].”

• cites Credits [55]Not checked yet

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• cites LZ77 [56]Not checked yet

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• cites Huffman algorithms [57]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The single-ledger based architecture for a public network was introduced in 2013 by the Ethereum platform.

“This architecture was introduced in 2013 by the Ethereum platform [36].”

• cites [36] Greenspan, G. (2019, September 22). MultiChain Private Blockchain—White Paper. Available online: http://www.multichain.com/download/MultiChain-White-Paper.pdf.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoW was first introduced by Dwork et al. in 1992 to reduce the number of spam emails by making it computationally difficult to send multiple emails simultaneously.

“PoW was first introduced by Dwork et al. in the year 1992 to reduce the number of spam emails by making it computationally difficult to send multiple emails simultaneously [64].”

• cites Dwork et al. [64] (2019, January 18). Brute-Force Search—Wikipedia. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_search.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The single-ledger public architecture has limitations to implement private applications such as healthcare, education, governance, and national policy because it is open to anyone to join and the transaction data is public, and no access control mechanism is employed.

“However, it has limitations to implement private applications, such as healthcare, education, governance, and national policy because: 1) the architecture makes it is open to anyone to join the network and the transaction data is public, and 2) no access control mechanism is employed.”

May combine two claims.

In 2017, the bitcoin mining used around 30.14 TerraWatt hours (TWh) of energy, which is equivalent to energy usage of the entire Ireland in a year.

“In 2017, the bitcoin mining used around 30.14 TerraWatt hours (TWh) of energy, which is equivalent to energy usage of the entire Ireland in a year [3].”

• cites [3] (2019, January 08). Bitcoin Mining Consumes More Electricity a Year than Ireland|Technology|The Guardian. Available online: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/nov/27/bitcoin-mining-consumes-electricity-ireland.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The single-ledger private architecture should be used to build a blockchain within an organization or a federation of organizations.

“In summary, single-ledger based blockchain architecture for public network can be used for application domains that do not require private transactions and authentication for the users to join the network, whereas the architecture for private network should be used to build a blockchain within an organization or a federation of organizations.”

May combine two claims.

In a hybrid network, encryption/decryption operations are performed only by the nodes involved in a transaction, whereas in the multi-ledger architecture all the endorsing and committing peers perform the decryption operation.

“This is because in a hybrid network the encryption/decryption operations will be only performed by the nodes involved in a transaction, whereas in the multi-ledger architecture all the endorsing and committing peers will perform the decryption operation.”

May combine two claims.

If a mining pool owns more than 50% of the network's computing power, then it is likely that those miners would be able to prevent the validation of proposed transactions, and consequently stop the transactions between users.

“If a mining pool owns more than 50% of the network's computing power, then it is likely that those miners would be able to prevent the validation of proposed transactions, and consequently stop the transactions between users [73].”

• cites [73] Conti, 2018, A Survey on Security and Privacy Issues of Bitcoin, IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor. sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Gervais et al. developed a framework to evaluate the performance of blockchain and showed that the throughput of PoW-based blockchain can increase up to 60 transactions per second achieving the same level of security as in current PoW network.

“However, Gervais et al. developed framework to evaluate the performance of blockchain and showed that the throughput PoW-based blockchain can increase up to 60 transactions per second achieving the same level of security as in current PoW network [71].”

• cites Gervais et al. [71]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Anchoring ensures high immutability of the side-chain.

“This process is known as anchoring and it ensures high immutability of the side-chain.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The single-ledger hybrid architecture should be used for public domain applications requiring confidential transactions between some network participants.

“The architecture for the hybrid network should be used for the public domain applications requiring confidential transactions between some network participants.”

May combine two claims.

Encryption/decryption operations are computationally complex and energy hungry.

“The encryption/decryption operations are computationally complex and energy hungry [49].”

• cites [49] (2018, December 29). Hyperledger Fabric—Hyperledger. Available online: https://www.hyperledger.org/projects/fabric.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PoW favors the rich, as the chance of mining a block by a miner is proportional to the hardware computational resources owned by that miner and also requires specialized mining hardwares.

“Also, it favors the rich, as the chance of mining a block by a miner is proportional to the hardware computational resources owned by that miner and also requires specialized mining hardwares.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Single-ledger based platforms were developed in tier 1.0 and then remained in tier 2.0 and 3.0.

“Single-ledger based platforms were developed in tier 1.0 and then remained in tier 2.0 and 3.0.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The transaction manager keeps the transaction data private and secure by broadcasting the hashed encrypted data to the network.

“The transaction manager keeps the transaction data private and secure by broadcasting the hashed encrypted data to the network.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The multi-ledger architecture divides the blockchain network into channels to enable private transactions between the members of a channel.

“The architecture divides the blockchain network into channels to enable private transactions between the members of a channel [52].”

• cites [52] (2019, January 14). Blockchain Platform|Oracle Cloud. Available online: https://cloud.oracle.com/en_US/blockchain.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

PoW is widely used and provides a security service in the blockchain, as miners would refrain from mining invalid or malicious transactions, due to the invested computing power to mine a block.

“PoW is widely used and provides a security service in the blockchain, as miners would refrain from mining invalid or malicious transactions, due to the invested computing power to mine a block.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A constellation allows the submission of transactions in a private way by using encryption.

“A constellation allows the submission of transactions in a private way by using encryption.”

May combine two claims.

In public blockchain, transaction data is kept public over the network, leading to the issue of data privacy.

“However, the transaction data is kept public over the network leading to the issue of data privacy [35].”

• cites [35] Lai, 2018, Blockchain—From public to private, Handbook of Blockchain, Digital Finance, and Inclusion sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The interoperability based architecture is developed for a single-ledger based blockchain, but it can be used for multi-ledger blockchain.

“The interoperability based architecture is developed for a single-ledger based blockchain.However, it can be used for multi-ledger blockchain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoW was used in 2008 by Nakamoto et al. for peer-to-peer transactions of cryptocurrencies (Bitcoin) without the involvement of any third party.

“The PoW algorithm was then used in the year 2008 by Nakamoto et al. for peer-to-peer transactions of cryptocurrencies (Bitcoin) without the involvement of any third party [2].”

• cites Nakamoto et al. [2] Nakamoto, S. (2019, September 22). Bitcoin: A Peer-To-Peer Electronic Cash System. Available online: https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Prime number PoW is only used by the cryptocurrency primecoin.

“The prime number PoW is only used by the cryptocurrency primecoin [85].”

• cites [85] (2019, January 25). Komodo White Paper. Available online: https://komodoplatform.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/2018-05-09-Komodo-White-Paper-Full.pdf.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In PoW the mining proof is verified by performing only one hash operation, whereas in prime number PoW the mining proof is verified by performing two hash operations and two primality tests.

“This is because, in PoW the mining proof is verified by performing only one hash operation (i.e generating the block hash by using the provided nonce value), whereas in the prime number PoW, the mining proof is verified by performing two hash operations (one for the calculation of mining certificate and one for the block hash) and two primality tests.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The capability of a miner can be calculated based on various factors such as the amount of cryptocurrency owned by that miner, the contribution of the miner to the community, the trust the network has on the miner, or the amount of storage owned by the miner.

“The capability of a miner can be calculated based on various factors such as the amount of cryptocurrency owned by that miner, the contribution of the miner to the community, the trust the network has on the miner, or the amount of storage owned by the miner.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the bitcoin network, it takes 6 blocks confirmation for a transaction to get executed.

“For instance, in bitcoin network, it takes 6 blocks confirmation for a transaction to get executed [87].”

• cites [87] (2019, January 10). Proof of Stake Instead of Proof of Work. Available online: https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=27787.0.Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

PoSV was proposed by Ren in 2014 to address the economic issue in PoS where a node may not perform transactions in order to increase its chance of being selected as the next forger, and to prevent the financial flow in the system, which is necessary for an economy to grow.

“To address the economic issue in PoS where a node may not perform transactions in order to increase its chance of being selected as the next forger, Proof of Stake Velocity (PoSV) was proposed by Ren in 2014 [95] to prevent the financial flow in the system, which is necessary for an economy to grow.”

• cites Ren [95]Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The economy benefits from financial flow.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoSV is used by the cryptocurrency Reddcoin.

“PoSV is used by the cryptocurrency Reddcoin [96].”

• cites [96] (2019, January 10). Proof of Burn—Bitcoin Wiki. Available online: https://en.bitcoin.it/wiki/Proof_of_burn.Not checked yet

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PoSpace consumes less energy than compute-intensive consensus protocols.

“The main advantage of PoSpace is that it consumes less energy than compute-intensive based protocols and does not favor the rich as in the previosuly discussed capability based protocols.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PoB is used by cryptocurrency slimcoin and third generation coin.

“PoB is used by cryptocurrency slimcoin [99] and third generation coin [100].”

• cites [99] (2019, January 10). TGcoin. Available online: https://trade.tgco.in/.Not checked yet

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• cites [100] Dziembowski, S., Faust, S., Kolmogorov, V., and Pietrzak, K. (2015, January 16–20). Proofs of space. Proceedings of the Annual Cryptology Conference, Santa Barbara, CA, USA. sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

If the counter parties exchange cryptocurrency with each other just for the purpose of reinitialization the coin age, then the economy will not get benefit from this financial flow.

“However, if the counter parties exchange cryptocurrency with each other just for the purpose of reinitialization the coin age, then the economy will not get benefit from this financial flow.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The economy benefits from financial flow.

May combine two claims.

The target value of each forger in the network is different and is higher for a forger having more coins at stake, increasing the chances of that miner to forge the next block.

“Consequently, the target value of each forger in the network is different and the value is higher for a forger having more coins at stake, increasing the chances of that miner to forge the next block.”

May combine two claims.

The high amount of energy consumption in prime number PoW serves for the security of the blockchain network as well as for development of cryptography methods.

“Consequently, the high amount of energy consumption serves for the security of the blockchain network as well as for development of cryptography methods.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The annual energy consumption of bitcoin as of 22 June 2019 is 67.937 TWh.

“The annual energy consumption as of 22 June 2019 is 67.937TWh [75].”

• cites [75] (2018, December 18). Litecoin—Open Source P2P Digital Currency. Available online: https://litecoin.org/.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The PoW consensus is implemented in Bitcoin, Litecoin, and Dogecoin networks.

“The PoW consensus is implemented in Bitcoin, Litecoin [76], and Dogecoin [77] networks.”

• cites [76] (2018, December 18). Dogecoin. Available online: https://dogecoin.com/.Not checked yet

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• cites [77] King, 2013, Primecoin: Cryptocurrency with prime number proof-of-work, July 7thNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PoSpace was proposed by Dziembowski et al. in 2015, and in it a miner with enough disk space wins the right to generate the next block.

“Dziembowski et al. proposed proof of space (PoSpace) also known as proof of capacity in 2015 where a miner having enough disk space wins the right to generate the next block in the chain [101].”

• cites [101] Bresson, E., Canteaut, A., Chevallier-Mames, B., Clavier, C., Fuhr, T., Gouget, A., Icart, T., Misarsky, J.F., Naya-Plasencia, M., and Paillier, P. (2019, September 22). Shabal, a Submission to NIST’s Cryptographic Hash Algorithm Competition. Available online: https://www.cs.rit.edu/~ark/20090927/Round2Candidates/Shabal.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

PoS reduces the transaction flow in the network as the forgers are lured to keep the cryptocurrency at stake, discouraging financial transactions.

“In addition, the consensus protocol reduces the transaction flow in the network as the forgers are lured to keep the cryptocurrency at stake discouraging financial transactions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Consequently, a miner purchases the right to mine a block in PoB similar to purchasing computing resources for mining in PoW.

“Consequently, a miner purchases the right to mine a block in PoB similar to purchasing computing resources for mining in PoW.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoSpace does not favor the rich as capability-based protocols do.

“The main advantage of PoSpace is that it consumes less energy than compute-intensive based protocols and does not favor the rich as in the previosuly discussed capability based protocols.”

May combine two claims.

The stake holding duration is involved in order to avoid repetitive selection of a forger having more number of coins and to make the process semi-random.

“The stake holding duration is involved in order to avoid repetitive selection of a forger having more number of coins and to make the process semi-random.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

If the forger tries to generate a malicious attack, the coins at stake are lost, discouraging the forgers to behave as a bad actor.

“If the forger tries to generate a malicious attack, the coins at stake are lost discouraging the forgers to behave as a bad actor.”

May combine two claims.

PoB was proposed by Ian Stewart in 2014 to address the issue of high energy consumption in PoW and the problem of retrievable staked coins encouraging malicious users in PoS.

“To address the issue of high energy consumption in PoW and the problem of retrievable staked coins encouraging malicious users in PoS, Ian Stewart proposed Proof of Burn (PoB) in 2014 [97].”

• cites Ian Stewart [97]Not checked yet

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In 2013, King S. proposed prime number proof of work to channelize the high amount of energy consumption of PoW for dual use.

“In 2013, King S. proposed prime number proof of work to channelize the high amount of energy consumption of PoW for dual use [78].”

• cites King S. [78]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

DPoW is a hybrid consensus method allowing a blockchain to secure itself using the mining power of a PoW blockchain.

“Therefore, DPoW is a hybrid consensus method allowing a blockchain to secure itself using the mining power of a PoW blockchain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

DPoS consensus algorithm is used by the cryptocurrency trading platforms Bitshares, Nano, and Cardano.

“DPoS consensus algorithm is used by the cryptocurrency trading platforms Bitshares [92], Nano [93], and Cardano [94].”

• cites [92] (2019, January 23). Nano—An Instant, Zero-Fee, Scalable Currency. Available online: https://nano.org/en.Not checked yet

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• cites [93] (2019, January 23). Cardano—Home of the Ada Cryptocurrency and Technological Platform. Available online: https://www.cardano.org/en/home/.Not checked yet

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• cites [94] Ren, L. (2019, September 22). Proof of Stake Velocity: Building the Social Currency of the Digital Age. Available online: https://www.reddcoin.com/papers/PoSV.pdf.Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

This is because of the increasing price of digital currency (required in PoS) as compared to the computing hardware capacity (required in PoW).

“This is because of the increasing price of digital currency (required in PoS) as compared to the computing hardware capacity (required in PoW).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The price of digital currency is increasing compared to computing hardware capacity.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

DPoS was proposed by Larimer in 2014 to solve the issue of rich getting richer in PoS by selecting the forgers based on election rather than on the amount of staked coins owned.

“Delegated proof of stake (DPoS) was proposed by Larimer in 2014 to solve the issue of rich getting richer in the PoS by selecting the forgers based on election rather than on the amount of staked coins owned [91].”

• cites Larimer [91]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The basic idea behind PoB is similar to PoW in a way that the miners invest in mining computing resources in order to increase their probability of mining the next block, and in PoB the miners burn more coins which is analogous to buying virtual mining rigs.

“The basic idea behind PoB is similar to PoW in a way that the miners invest in mining computing resources in order to increase their probability of mining the next block and in PoB the miners burn more coins which is analogous to buying virtual mining rigs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PoS was proposed in 2011 to eliminate the competitive approach of PoW consensus consuming a high amount of energy, and was later used by the cryptocurrency Peercoin in 2012.

“To eliminate the competitive approach of PoW consensus consuming a high amount of energy, an alternate consensus known as Proof of Stake (PoS) was proposed in 2011 [88] which was later used by the crytpocurrency Peercoin (also known as PPcoin) in 2012 [89].”

• cites [88] King, S., and Nadal, S. (2019, September 22). PPCoin: Peer-to-Peer Crypto-Currency with Proof-of-Stake. Available online: https://decred.org/research/king2012.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [89] (2019, January 10). Whitepaper:Nxt—Nxt Wiki. Available online: http://nxtwiki.org/wiki/Whitepaper:Nxt.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The shuffling in DPoS aims to prevent a deterministic approach, vulnerable to attack, in which the next miner is known in advance.

“The shuffling aims to prevent a deterministic approach, vulnerable to attack, in which the next miner is known in advance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

DPoW solving the issue of high energy consumption of PoW and prime number PoW compromises network security when the communication between the DPoW and the PoW blockchain is interrupted or lost.

“DPoW solving the issue of high energy consumption of PoW and prime number PoW compromises network security when the communication between the DPoW and the PoW blockchain is interrupted or lost.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

PoSV still favors the rich.

“Moreover, the protocol still favors the rich and has not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats.”

May combine two claims.

PoS does not prevent malicious users from generating invalid blocks, as the staked coins are returned back to them, compared to PoW where the computational power used by the miner is non retrievable.

“Moreover, the protocol does not prevent malicious users from generating invalid blocks, as the staked coins as returned back to them as compared to PoW where the computational power used by the miner is non retrievable.”

May combine two claims.

Because PoET consensus depends on Intel's SGX hardware, Intel becomes the controlling authority, making blockchain less decentralized.

“Moreover, as the consensus depends on the SGX hardware developed by Intel, it makes Intel as the controlling authority making blockchain less decentralize.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

BFT-based consensus prevents cases of failing nodes and malicious nodes.

“BFT-based consensus prevents the cases of failing node and malicious node.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

PoH favors the rich for leader selection, making the process deterministic and centralized.

“However, PoH favors the rich for the selection of the leader making the process deterministic and centralized.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PoI has not been tested for performance and protection against security threats.

“Moreover, this consensus protocol has not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

PoA fairly incentivizes all block contributors but suffers from high energy consumption as in PoW and favors the rich as in PoS.

“PoA fairly incentivizing all the block contributors in the network, suffers from the issue of high energy consumption as in PoW and it favors the rich as in PoS.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Capability-based consensus protocols reduce high energy consumption of compute-intensive protocols but suffer from rich-getting-richer, encouragement of malicious activities, and network centralization.

“In summary, capability based consensus protocols reduces the high energy consumption of the compute-intensive based protocols, but suffers from the issues of rich getting richer, encouragement of malicious activities, and network centralization.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

PoSpace has hardly been tested for performance.

“However, PoSpace is hardly tested for its performance and can be prone to malware attacks as the plot of hashes stored in the hard disk can be easily attacked and tampered with.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoET is currently used by HyperLedger Sawtooth.

“PoET is currently used by the HyperLedger Sawtooth blockchain platform [41].”

• cites [41] (2018, December 29). Hyperledger Iroha—Hyperledger. Available online: https://www.hyperledger.org/projects/iroha.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In PoSpace, the miner does not burn energy or coins to mine a block, which encourages malicious users to generate invalid blocks.

“Moreover, the miner does not burn any energy or coins in order to mine the block, encourgaing malicious users to generate invalid block.”

May combine two claims.

PoET was developed by Intel in 2016 as a cost-efficient consensus protocol to solve rich-getting-richer and network centralization issues.

“In order to solve the issues of rich getting richer and centralization of the network, Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET) was developed by Intel in 2016 [115] as a cost-efficient consensus protocol.”

• cites [115] Sabt, M., Achemlal, M., and Bouabdallah, A. (2015, January 20–22). Trusted Execution Environment: What It is, and What It is Not. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Trustcom/BigDataSE/ISPA, Helsinki, Finland. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

PoAuthority and PoR have not been tested for performance and protection against security threats.

“Moreover, they have not been tested yet for its performance and protection against security threats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoR is a variation of PoAuthority where a reputed organization is used as validator instead of an authorized identity.

“A variation of PoAuthority is Proof of Reputation (PoR) where instead of an authorized identity, a reputed organization is used as validator [113].”

• cites [113] (2019, January 23). Menlo One—Tools that Make Blockchain Work for Business. Available online: https://www.menlo.one/.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PoAuthority is used by POA network and Vechain.

“PoAuthority is used by cryptocurrency trading platforms POA network [112] and Vechain.”

• cites [112] (2019, January 23). Gochain-Whitepaper. Available online: https://gochain.io/gochain-whitepaper-v2.1.2.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In BigchainDB, PBFT is referred to as tendermint protocol, where nodes having stake are selected as backup nodes.

“In BigchainDB, PBFT is referred as tendermint protocol [126] where the nodes having stake (similar to PoS) are selected as the backup nodes.”

• cites [126] Vukolić, M. (2015, January 29). The quest for scalable blockchain fabric: Proof-of-work vs. BFT replication. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Open Problems in Network Security, Zurich, Switzerland. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoH was proposed in 2017 by Yakovenko to address issues in compute-intensive and capability-based protocols.

“Proof of History (PoH) proposed in 2017 by Yakovenko aims to address the issues prevailing in compute-intensive based and above discussed capability based protocols [106].”

• cites [106] (2019, January 18). Proof of Importance. Available online: https://nem.io/xem/harvesting-and-poi/.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoBelievability was proposed in 2017 to address rich-getting-richer issues in PoS.

“Proof of believability was proposed in 2017 to address issues of rich getting richer prevailing in PoS [108].”

• cites [108] (2019, January 18). IOST—UNLEASHING THE POWER OF BLOCKCHAIN. Available online: https://iost.io/.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In PoAuthority, validators are formally approved accounts whose identity is verified by an authorized public notary system and kept public on-chain for cross-check.

“The validators (known as authorities) in this algorithm are formally approved accounts whose identity is verified by an authorized public notary system and is kept public on-chain for cross-check.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In pure PoW, the current mining reward is 12.5 bitcoins and is halved after every 210,000 blocks mined.

“The current mining reward is 12.5 bitcoins and is halved after every 210,000 blocks mined.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PBFT was proposed by Castro et al. in 1999.

“Practical byzantine fault tolerance was proposed by Castro et al. in the year 1999 [125].”

• cites [125] Kwon, 2014, Tendermint: Consensus without mining, Draft v. 0.6, fallNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoA is used by the cryptocurrency Decred.

“PoA is not been tested much for its performance and security threats and is used by the cryptocurrency Decred [122].”

• cites [122] Driscoll, K., Hall, B., Sivencrona, H., and Zumsteg, P. (2003, January 23–26). Byzantine fault tolerance, from theory to reality. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Safety, Reliability, and Security, Edinburgh, UK. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoBelievability is currently implemented by IOST.

“PoBelievability is currently implemented by the cryptocurrency platform internet of services token (IOST) [109] and has not been evaluated for security and privacy issues.”

• cites [109] (2019, January 23). Proof-of-Authority—Wikipedia. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof-of-authority.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

PoA developed in 2014 addresses these issues by using PoW in conjunction with PoS, dividing transaction fees between a miner and validators, encouraging more active participation.

“Proof of Authority (PoA) [121] developed in 2014, address this issues by using PoW in conjunction with PoS by dividing the transaction fees between a miner and the validators, encouraging more active participation of the nodes.”

• cites [121] (2019, January 11). Decred—Autonomous Digital Currency. Available online: https://www.decred.org/.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoAuthority was proposed in 2015 as a reputation-based consensus protocol where miner reputation is at stake instead of coins.

“Proof of authority, a reputation-based consensus protocol was proposed in 2015 where the reputation of the miner is at stake instead of coins [110,111].”

• cites [110] (2019, January 23). Wiki/Proof-of-Authority-Chains.md at Master · paritytech/wiki · GitHub. Available online: https://github.com/paritytech/wiki/blob/master/Proof-of-Authority-Chains.md.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [111] (2019, January 23). POA Network: Public Ethereum Sidechain with Proof of Autonomy Consensus by Independent Validators. Available online: https://poa.network/.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

PoI was introduced in 2018 by NEM to address reduced transaction flow in PoS where miners do not perform transactions to increase their mining chances.

“Proof of Importance introduced in 2018 by the cryptocurrency platform NEM [45] addresses the issue of reduced transaction flow exisitng in the PoS protocol where the miners do not perform transactions in order to increase their chances of mining.”

• cites [45] (2018, December 30). Quorum Overview. Available online: https://github.com/jpmorganchase/quorum/wiki/Quorum-Overview.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Miners dedicating computing power may demand high transaction fees, discouraging use of the network, because with low transaction fees the cost of mining is higher than the incentive received.

“Consequently, the miners dedicating their computing power may demand high transaction fees discouraging the use of the network.This is because, with low transaction fees the cost of mining will be much higher than the incentive received.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

CFT-based consensus prevents only against failing or crashing nodes.

“On the other hand, CFT based consensus prevents only against the case of failing/crashing nodes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

PoH requires a multi-core CPU architecture to increase verification speed.

“Moreover, it is necessary to have a multi-core CPU architecture (although common now-a-days) in order to increase the speed of verification.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoI considers net transactions over time to avoid miners taking advantage by transacting back and forth.

“To avoid the reduction in transaction flow and holding of cryptocurrency by the miner, the protocol takes into consideration net transactions over time avoiding the miners to take the advantage by transacting back and forth [107].”

• cites [107] (2019, January 18). Proof of Believability. Available online: https://github.com/iost-official/Documents/blob/master/Technical_White_Paper/EN/Tech_white_paper_EN.md.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

PoET has low energy consumption compared to PoW and does not favor the rich.

“PoET has low energy consumption compared to PoW and does not favors the rich.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PoR is currently used by Gochain and Menlo one.

“PoR is currently used by trading platform Gochain [113] and Menlo one [114].”

• cites [113] (2019, January 23). Menlo One—Tools that Make Blockchain Work for Business. Available online: https://www.menlo.one/.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [114] (2018, December 18). The Second Coming of Blockchain|Intel® Software. Available online: https://software.intel.com/en-us/blogs/2017/02/14/the-second-coming-of-blockchain.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In PoI, a miner with the highest importance score is selected to mine the next block.

“A miner having the highest value of importance score in the network is selected to mine the next block.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The tragedy of commons in this context is where everyone selfishly looks for their own benefit without contributing to network security.

“This issue is known as the tragedy of commons [120] where everyone will selfishly look for their own benefit without contributing to the network security.”

• cites [120] Bentov, 2014, Proof of activity: Extending bitcoin’s proof of work via proof of stake [extended abstract] y, ACM Sigmetrics Perform. Eval. Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In most consensus protocols, validators validating transactions receive no reward.

“Moreover, the validators validating the transactions in most of the consenus protocols receives no reward for their work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PBFT is used by Hyperledger Fabric, Hyperledger Iroha, Oracle, Hydrachain, and BigchainDB.

“PBFT is used by development platforms such as Hyperledger Fabric, Hyperledger Iroha, Oracle, Hydrachain, and BigchainDB.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Voting-based consensus protocols were proposed to address the issues of capability-based protocols.

“In order to address these issues, voting based consensus protocols were proposed in the literature.”

May combine two claims.

PoET uses a trusted execution environment along with Intel SGX for fair and efficient leader election, reducing computation and energy cost and eliminating wealth dominance.

“PoET uses a trusted execution environment (TEE) [116] along with Intel's software guard extensions (SGX) [117], for fair and efficient leader election reducing the computation and energy cost and eliminating the wealth dominance.”

• cites [116] (2018, December 18). Intel SGX Homepage|Intel® Software. Available online: https://software.intel.com/en-us/sgx.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [117] Chen, L., Xu, L., Shah, N., Gao, Z., Lu, Y., and Shi, W. (2017). On Security Analysis of Proof-of-Elapsed-Time (PoET), Springer. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Voting-based consensus protocols use a voting system to elect a miner for generating a block, eliminating high energy consumption of compute-intensive protocols and rich-getting-richer in capability-based protocols.

“The voting based consensus protocols uses a voting system to elect a miner for generating a block, eliminating the issue of high energy consumption of compute-intensive based protocols due to miner selection based on competitive approach and the issue of rich getting richer in capability based protocols due to the miner selection based on the wealth dominance.”

May combine two claims.

DBFT was proposed by NEO in 2014 to avoid centralized selection of leader and backup nodes in PBFT, with nodes selected by voting.

“In order to avoid the centralized selection of leader and backup nodes in PBFT, Delegated byzantine fault tolerance was proposed by NEO cryptocurrency platform [129] in 2014 where the nodes are selected based on a voting process.”

• cites [129] Schwartz, 2014, The Ripple protocol consensus algorithm, Ripple Labs Inc White Pap.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

For a private network with a selected group of backup nodes, PBFT performs satisfactorily and eliminates the issues of compute-intensive and capability-based protocols.

“For a private network having a selected group of backup nodes, PBFT performs satisfactorily eliminating the issues of compute-intensive and capability based protocols.”

May combine two claims.

FBA's maximum number of faulty nodes required is 10n-5/3n-3 and 5n/3n-3 times less compared to DBFT and PBFT respectively.

“This is because, the maximum number of faulty nodes required by FBA is 10n-5 3n-3 and 5n 3n-3 times less compared to DBFT and PBFT respectively.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In Stellar, all nodes in a quorum slice must agree upon a transaction to update it to the ledger, unlike Ripple where only 80% agreement was needed.

“In stellar, all the nodes in a quorum slice has to agree upon a transaction in order to update it to the ledger, unlike ripple where only 80% of the agreement was needed.”

May combine two claims.

If the majority follower node behaves maliciously and does not send the replication acknowledgement message, then the block cannot be committed by the leader and the network suffers from latency.

“If the majority follower node behaves maliciously and does not send the replication acknowledgement message then the block can not be committed by the leader and the network suffers from the issue of latency.”

May combine two claims.

DPoS+BFT was developed by Credits in 2018, using DPoS for node selection and BFT to update the ledger while protecting against malicious attacks.

“DPoS+BFT developed by the Credits blockchain platform [55] in 2018, uses DPoS consensus algorithm for the selection of the nodes participating in consensus process, and the BFT algorithm to update the ledger while protecting against malicious attacks.”

• cites [55] (2018, December 29). Huffman Coding. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huffman_coding.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In FBA, a new transaction is added if 80% of nodes agree on its status, compared with 66% in PBFT.

“A new transaction is added into the network if 80% of the nodes agree on the status of the transaction (which was 66% in PBFT).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Segregated Witness (SegWit) aims to solve the issue of scalability by separating the transaction signature from the transaction data in the bitcoin network.

“Segregated Witness (SegWit) [192], first introduced by Pieter Wuille aims to solve the issue of scalability by separating the transaction signature from the transaction data in the bitcoin network.”

• cites [192] Poon, J., and Dryja, T. (2019, September 21). The Bitcoin Lightning Network: Scalable Off-Chain Instant Payments Technical Report, Technical Report (Draft). Available online: https://lightning.network.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Raft consensus algorithm solves the issue of crash tolerance but does not provide data integrity when a node behaves maliciously.

“Raft consensus algorithm solves the issue of crash tolerance but does not provide data integrity in the case when a node behaves maliciously.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Intel proposed and patented a new generation hardware accelerator that aims to reduce the mining power of the bitcoin network by 35%.

“The United States technology firm, Intel, proposed and patented a new generation hardware accelerator that aims to reduce the mining power of the bitcoin network by 35% [197].”

• cites [197] Brown, 2016, Corda: An introduction, R3 CEVNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

This energy consumption results in environmental hazards such as global warming and carbon footprints.

“This energy consumption results in environmental hazard such as global warming and carbon foot prints [196].”

• cites [196] (2018, December 31). BITCOIN MINING HARDWARE ACCELERATOR WITH OPTIMIZED MESSAGE DIGEST AND MESSAGE SCHEDULER DATAPATH, Available online: http://appft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-adv.html&r=1&p=1&f=G&l=50&d=PG01&S1=20180089642.PGNR.&OS=dn/20180089642&RS=DN/20180089642.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lightning network is a layer on top of the blockchain network that allows users to perform transactions off-chain using channels without waiting for the block to get processed.

“Lightning network is a layer on top of the blockchain network that allows users to perform transaction off-chain using channels without waiting for the block to get processed.”

• cites [193] (2018, December 31). Zilliqa. Available online: https://docs.zilliqa.com/positionpaper.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Increasing transaction data congest the network, increasing processing time and requiring more data storage.

“Similarly, the increasing transaction data congest the network increasing the processing time as well as requires more data storage.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Both SegWit and Lightning network are only aimed at the bitcoin blockchain network.

“But, both of these solutions are only aimed to the bitcoin blockchain network.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

FBA is also used by Stellar, where the UNL is referred to as quorum slices.

“FBA is also used by Stellar cryptocurrency platform where the UNL is referred as quorum slices [132].”

• cites [132] Ongaro, D., and Ousterhout, J. (2014, January 19–20). In Search of an Understandable Consensus Algorithm. Proceedings of the 2014 USENIX Annual Technical Conference (USENIX ATC 14), Philadelphia, PA, USA.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Capability based protocols are more prone to malicious attacks.

“the capability based protocols solves the issue of high energy consumption but tends to be biased towards the rich (wealth dominance) and more prone to malicious attacks”

May combine two claims.

Although FBA makes the network decentralized and reduces communication overhead, it is more prone to malicious activities compared to DBFT and PBFT.

“Although, FBA makes the network decentralized and reduces the communication overhead, the protocol is more prone to malicious activities compared to DBFT and PBFT.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This leads to the issue of having a single point of failure in a centralized peer-to-peer network.

“This leads to the issue of having a single point of failure in a centralized peer-to-peer network.”

May combine two claims.

The tangled transactions are more prone to sybil attack because it is possible for a malicious attacker to create random transactions in order to select a tip and then process invalid transactions.

“However, the tangled transactions are more prone to sybil attack, because it is possible to create random transactions by an malicious attacker in order to select a tip, and can then process invalid transactions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The issues of high communication data leading to increased energy consumption and sybil attacks still prevail in DBFT.

“The issues of high amount of communication data leading to increase in energy consumption and sybil attacks still prevails in DBFT.”

May combine two claims.

PBFT needs an authority for selecting the leader and backup nodes, making it less decentralized.

“However, PBFT needs an authority for the selection of a leader and the backup nodes, making it less decentralized.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Capability based protocols tend to be biased towards the rich (wealth dominance).

“the capability based protocols solves the issue of high energy consumption but tends to be biased towards the rich (wealth dominance) and more prone to malicious attacks”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Every transaction in a blockchain network requires peer-to-peer verification before it can be processed.

“Every transaction in a blockchain network requires peer-to-peer verification before it can be processed.”

May combine two claims.

Raft, proposed in 2014 by Ongaro et al., is a CFT-based consensus ensuring safety only against node crashes without safety against malicious attacks.

“Raft consensus algorithm proposed in 2014 by Ongaro et al. is a CFT based consensus ensuring safety only against the situation where a network node crashes without providing safety against malicious attacks [133].”

• cites [133] (2019, January 23). Federated Consensus. Available online: https://chain.com/docs/1.2/protocol/papers/federated-consensus.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The ledger is shared only among the peers participating in the transactions, resulting in no peers on the network having an identical copy of the ledger.

“However, the ledger is shared only among the peers participating in the transactions resulting no peers on the network having identical copy of ledger.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The complexity of building and deploying a private blockchain network and the associated cost are major obstacles for the adoption of the technology.

“The complexity of building and deploying a private blockchain network and the associated cost are major obstacles for the adoption of the technology.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

According to the Ripple network, the intersection of UNL by any two nodes in different UNLs should be at least one fifth of the total nodes, ensuring a transaction is validated by all nodes.

“According to the ripple network, the intersection of UNL by any two nodes in different UNLs should be atleast one fifth of the total nodes in the network.This ensures that a transaction is validated by all the nodes in the network.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In private blockchain networks, selected nodes participate in the consensus process.

“| Participants of Consensus Process All block generators | Selected nodes | |”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In a public blockchain network where anyone can join, there rises the issue of lack of central governing authority to develop standard protocol and rules for transactions.

“In a public blockchain network, where anyone can join the network, there rises the issue of lack of central governing authority to develop standard protocol and rules for transactions (specially financial transactions).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In public blockchain networks, all block generators participate in the consensus process.

“| Participants of Consensus Process All block generators | Selected nodes | |”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Public blockchain networks have open network join permission.

“| Network Join Permission | Open | Restricted/Authorized |”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In public blockchain networks, transactions are visible to all members.

“| Transaction Visibility | All members | Selected authorized members |”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Different platforms having different architecture, programming language, consensus protocols, and transaction flow makes it difficult for the interoperability of blockchain applications among various platforms.

“Different platforms having different architecture, programming language, consensus protocols, and transaction flow makes it difficult for the interoperability of blockchain applications among various platforms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The security of the data and the privacy of the user's identity are issues of high relevance that cannot be neglected while making the blockchain framework more energy-efficient and scalable.

“Furthermore, the security of the data and the privacy of the user's identity are issues of high relevance that can not be neglected while making the blockchain framework more energy-efficient and scalable.”