A survey on the adoption of blockchain in IoT: challenges and solutions

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The cost of execution of the business process on Ethereum blockchain could be two orders of magnitude greater than on Amazon SWF.

“Rimba et al. [120] reported that the cost of execution of the business process on Ethereum blockchain could be two orders of magnitude greater than on Amazon SWF.”

• cites [120] Rimba, 2020, Quantifying the cost of distrust: comparing blockchain and cloud services for business process execution, Inf. Syst. Front sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Due to restricted power and storage resources of IoT devices, vast amounts of data streamed from many devices creates a bottleneck for current IoT systems, resulting in low QoS.

“Due to the restricted power and storage resources of IoT devices, vast amounts of data streamed from many devices creates a bottleneck for the current IoT systems, which results in low QoS [8].”

• cites [8] Yu, 2018, Blockchain-based solutions to security and privacy issues in the internet of things, IEEE Wireless Communications sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Nguyen et al.'s framework, scalability and communication cost issues of the blockchain were not investigated.

“However, scalability and communication cost issue of the blockchain were not investigated.”

• cites [169] Nguyen, 2019, A mobile cloud based IoMT framework for automated health assessment and managementNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The largest percentages of research papers reviewed were retrieved from IEEE Xplore, while the second-highest percentages were collected from various Journals of Elsevier publisher.

“The graph depicted in Fig. 19(a) shows that the largest percentages of research papers have been retrieved from IEEE Xplore, while the second-highest percentages of publications have been collected from various Journals of Elsevier publisher.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The majority of studies included in the paper were published in 2019.

“The majority of studies included in the paper were published in 2019.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Ni et al.'s work, the authors did not describe which kinds of simulation tools or programming language were used to conduct performance analysis.

“However, the authors did not describe which kinds of simulation tools or programming language was used to conduct performance analysis.”

• cites [174] Ni, 2019, Healchain: a decentralized data management system for mobile healthcare using consortium blockchainNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The weakness of Ref. [90] is that a smart contract for managing data storage has not been implemented.

“The weakness of the article is that a smart contract for managing data storage has not been implemented.”

• cites [90] Al Omar, 2019, Privacy-friendly platform for healthcare data in cloud based on blockchain environment, Future Generat. Comput. Syst. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Liang et al. overlooked security issues such as malicious attacks on IoT devices.

“However, they overlooked security issues such as malicious attacks on IoT devices.”

• cites [173] Liang, 2017, Integrating blockchain for data sharing and collaboration in mobile healthcare applicationsNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The drawbacks of Wang et al.'s research are that data security and the delay arising from ABE and access control approach were not analyzed.

“However, the drawbacks of the research is that data security and the delay arising from ABE and access control approach were not analyzed.”

• cites [83] Wang, 2018, A blockchain-based framework for data sharing with fine-grained access control in decentralized storage systems, IEEE Access sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Wang et al.'s article, a blockchain prototype has not been implemented.

“However, blockchain prototype has not been implemented in the article.”

• cites [180] Wang, 2018, Secure cloud-based EHR system using attribute-based cryptosystem and blockchain, J. Med. Syst. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Ref. [88], a real prototype of the framework is yet to be implemented.

“However, a real prototype of the framework is yet to be implemented.”

• cites [88] Liu, 2018, BPDS: a blockchain based privacy-preserving data sharing for electronic medical recordsNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The limitation of Ref. [89] is that comparisons have not been made between smart contract-based schemes and traditional schemes, and the model was not implemented to analyze performances.

“The limitation of the work is that comparisons have not been made between smart contract-based schemes and traditional schemes, and the model was not implemented to analyze performances.”

• cites [89] Kaur, 2018, A proposed solution and future direction for blockchain-based heterogeneous medicare data in cloud environment, J. Med. Syst. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

To achieve a secure and efficient keyword search in the healthcare system, researchers have suggested merging blockchain technology with a traditional Cloud storage system.

“To achieve a secure and efficient keyword search in the healthcare system, researchers have suggested merging blockchain technology with a traditional Cloud storage system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

To answer these issues, blockchain technology has been adapted in Fog enabled healthcare systems.

“To answer these issues, blockchain technology has been adapted in Fog enabled healthcare systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Zheng et al.'s conceptual model for continuously sharing personal health data using blockchain-based decentralized Cloud storage has not had a prototype developed.

“However, a prototype of the framework is yet to be developed.”

• cites [182] Zheng, 2018, Blockchain-based personal health data sharing system using cloud storageNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Daraghmi et al.'s timed smart contract-based medical record access and permission management architecture did not address security and privacy and did not access continuous health data onto the blockchain.

“However, the security and privacy was not addressed and accessing continuous health data onto the blockchain was not done.”

• cites [95] Daraghmi, 2019, Medchain: a design of blockchain-based system for medical records access and permissions management, IEEE Access sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Islam et al.'s HPA framework is conceptual and no performance analysis was carried out.

“However, the model is conceptual, and no performance analysis was carried out.”

• cites [178] Islam, 2018, A conceptual framework for an IoT-based health assistant and its authorization modelNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Park et al.'s Cloud-based crowdsourcing medical remediation and evaluation framework CORUS has not had performance analysis of the Cloud blockchain investigated.

“The shortcoming of the article is that the performance analysis of the Cloud blockchain has not been investigated.”

• cites [94] Park, 2018, Corus: blockchain-based trustworthy evaluation system for efficacy of healthcare remediesNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The conceptual eHealth framework by Ref. [182] has not had performance analysis done.

“The limitation of the paper is that performance analysis has not been done.”

• cites [182] Zheng, 2018, Blockchain-based personal health data sharing system using cloud storageNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Many recent studies indicate that blockchain architectures can provide seamless connectivity between clients and industrial applications in smart cities.

“Many recent studies indicate that blockchain architectures can provide seamless connectivity between clients and industrial applications in smart cities.”

May combine two claims.

Islam et al.'s human activity recognition platform including blockchain based Fog-Cloud computing did not describe how blockchain has been utilized and no performance analysis has been conducted regarding blockchain, Fog and Cloud platform.

“The authors did not describe how blockchain has been utilized in the proposed framework and no performance analysis has been conducted regarding blockchain, Fog and Cloud platform.”

• cites [208] Islam, 2019, A blockchain-based fog computing framework for activity recognition as an application to e-healthcare services, Future Generat. Comput. Syst. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mytis et al.'s blockchain guarantee of integrity and non-repudiation of retrieval information from biomedical database did not discuss different blockchain related security attacks.

“Different blockchain related security attacks were not discussed.”

• cites [105] Mytis-Gkometh, 2017, Notarization of knowledge retrieval from biomedical repositories using blockchain technologyNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The collaborative framework for smart cities in Ref. [106] has not had implementation of smart contract and security assessment done.

“However, the implementation of smart contract and security assessment has not been done.”

• cites [106] Yu, 2018, Decentralized big data auditing for smart city environments leveraging blockchain technology, IEEE Access sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Malamas et al.'s forensics enabled framework for medical devices has not had its prototype implemented.

“The prototype of the proposal was not implemented.”

• cites [101] Malamas, 2019, A forensics-by-design management framework for medical devices based on blockchainNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The IoT-based smart city infrastructure in Ref. [217] has no access control designed for Cloud storage.

“However, a limitation of the work is that no access control has been designed for Cloud storage.”

• cites [217] Paul, 2018, IoT based secure smart city architecture using blockchainNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Calvaresi et al.'s combination of blockchain technologies and MAS to manage reputation for Agents did not cover the performance of the blockchain.

“The performance of the blockchain was not covered in the article.”

• cites [213] Calvaresi, 2018, Multi-agent systems and blockchain: results from a systematic literature reviewNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Full featured blockchain was not designed.

“Full featured blockchain was not designed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

The author did not demonstrate how weight is measured for a transaction which has been left as future work.

“The author did not demonstrate how weight is measured for a transaction which has been left as future work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

However, how blockchain collaborated with SDN enabled switch and controller in the Fog layer is unclear.

“However, how blockchain collaborated with SDN enabled switch and controller in the Fog layer is unclear.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The shortcoming of the article is that the feasibility of the proposal was not studied.

“The shortcoming of the article is that the feasibility of the proposal was not studied.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The approach in Ref. [239] differs from this scheme with respect to local agents' functionalities.

“The approach in Ref. [239] differs from this scheme with respect to local agents' functionalities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This approach encounters several challenges including sustainability and security because there is no incentive mechanism to exchange information with other vehicles and there is no consensus mechanism that can increase users' level of trust.

“This approach encounters several challenges including sustainability and security because there is no incentive mechanism to exchange information with other vehicles and there is no consensus mechanism that can increase users' level of trust.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

No access control has been designed for the Cloud storage.

“No access control has been designed for the Cloud storage.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The setbacks of the proposal are that the security concerns for the Edge servers were not addressed and the architecture was not implemented for analysing performance.

“The setbacks of the proposal are that the security concerns for the Edge servers were not addressed and the architecture was not implemented for analysing performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The significant contribution of the paper is that the Cloud agent collects local detection model using blockchain smart contract and form a fusion attack detection model with higher accuracy.

“The significant contribution of the paper is that the Cloud agent collects local detection model using blockchain smart contract and form a fusion attack detection model with higher accuracy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

However, the challenge of this approach is to ensure that the weight on the service is honestly set because a client can falsely claim higher priority for its transactions.

“However, the challenge of this approach is to ensure that the weight on the service is honestly set because a client can falsely claim higher priority for its transactions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The basic premise of this scheme and the scheme in Ref. [239] are similar.

“The basic premise of this scheme and the scheme in Ref. [239] are similar.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

However, how information classification was done has not been comprehensible.

“However, how information classification was done has not been comprehensible.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Their simulation results in the lowest cost of contact and suitable scheduling compared with other approaches to offloading.

“Their simulation results in the lowest cost of contact and suitable scheduling compared with other approaches to offloading.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Storing transactions related to dynamic execution parameters increases power consumption and throughput of the task offloading approach.

“Storing transactions related to dynamic execution parameters increases power consumption and throughput of the task offloading approach.”

May combine two claims.

The adoption of blockchain in IoT can overcome the single point of failure and serve as an adequate means to securely and efficiently store and process IoT data.

“The adoption of blockchain in IoT can overcome the single point of failure and serve as an adequate means to securely and efficiently store and process IoT data [8].”

• cites [8] Yu, 2018, Blockchain-based solutions to security and privacy issues in the internet of things, IEEE Wireless Communications sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Elimination of the blockchain PoW consensus mechanism can reduce power consumption and improve performance.

“For instance, elimination of the blockchain PoW consensus mechanism can reduce power consumption and improve performance [17].”

• cites [17] Uddin, 2019, An efficient selective miner consensus protocol in blockchain oriented IoT smart monitoringNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This infrastructure guarantees stable and efficient blockchain operations with the benefits of tamper resistance and reduces single point of failure vulnerabilities.

“This infrastructure guarantees stable and efficient blockchain operations with the benefits of tamper resistance and reduces single point of failure vulnerabilities [37].”

• cites [37] Zorzo, 2018, Dependable IoT using blockchain-based technologyNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The entire Bitcoin network absorbs considerably more energy than several nations, including Austria and Colombia.

“Zhou et al. [11] reported that the entire Bitcoin network absorbs considerably more energy than several nations, including Austria and Colombia.”

• cites [11] Zhou, 2020, Solutions to scalability of blockchain: a survey, IEEE Access sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The IoT devices are expected to be connected to high computing storage and networking resources to share IoT data with potential stakeholders.

“Connectivity challenges of IoT [20]: The IoT devices are expected to be connected to high computing storage and networking resources to share IoT data with potential stakeholders.”

• cites [20] Atlam, 2019, Technical aspects of blockchain and IoTNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Current IoT laws and regulations are becoming outdated especially with the advent of new disruptive technology such as blockchain and need to be revised to undertake the DTL.

“Current IoT laws and regulations are becoming outdated especially with the advent of new disruptive technology such as blockchain and need to be revised to undertake the DTL [25].”

• cites [25] Reyna, 2018, On blockchain and its integration with IoT. Challenges and opportunities, Future Generat. Comput. Syst. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Decentralized storage structure improves efficiency, solves the bottleneck problem and removes the need for third-party trust.

“While this decentralized storage structure improves efficiency, solves the bottleneck problem and removes the need for third-party trust [21], the management of IoT data on the blockchain puts a burden on participants' storage space.”

• cites [21] Karafiloski, 2017, Blockchain solutions for big data challenges: a literature reviewNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Bitcoin's energy consumption is compared with the domestic power consumption of Ireland, which IoT devices cannot undertake.

“Bitcoin's energy consumption is compared with the domestic power consumption of Ireland, which IoT devices cannot undertake [16].”

• cites [16] O'Dwyer, 2014, Bitcoin mining and its energy footprintNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The rapid synchronization of new blocks among blockchain nodes in a chain-structured ledger requires a higher amount of bandwidth, which can improve blockchain throughput.

“The rapid synchronization of new blocks among blockchain nodes in a chain-structured ledger requires a higher amount of bandwidth, which can improve blockchain throughput [11,19].”

• cites [11] Zhou, 2020, Solutions to scalability of blockchain: a survey, IEEE Access sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [19] Dwivedi, 2019, Optimized blockchain model for Internet of Things based healthcare applicationsNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

To avoid fraud-related activities such as double-spending attacks, the trustworthiness of the block must be checked, and the data flow should be controlled to ensure the smooth exchange of information.

“To avoid fraud-related activities such as double-spending attacks, the trustworthiness of the block must be checked, and the data flow should be controlled to ensure the smooth exchange of information [63].”

• cites [63] Firdaus, 2019, The rise of “blockchain”: bibliometric analysis of blockchain study, Scientometrics sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In IoT systems, the IoT devices continuously stream data which results in high concurrency.

“In IoT systems, the IoT devices continuously stream data which results in high concurrency [18].”

• cites [18] Sharma, 2020, Blockchain technology toward green IoT: opportunities and challenges, IEEE Network sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The P2P network ensures that all nodes can discover and connect each other to propagate blocks throughout the network and synchronize the valid current state of the blockchain.

“The P2P network ensures that all nodes can discover and connect each other to propagate blocks throughout the network and synchronize the valid current state of the blockchain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Full nodes ensure that transactions and blocks are checked and validated using rules prescribed in the consensus mechanism.

“Full nodes ensure that transactions and blocks are checked and validated using rules prescribed in the consensus mechanism, which is also called mining.”

May combine two claims.

Proof of Authority (PoA) is applicable for private blockchain and scalable since the limited numbers of pre-approved validators.

“The PoA is applicable for private blockchain and scalable since the limited numbers of pre-approved validators.”

• cites [72] De Angelis, 2018Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Otherwise, either the message or signature has been altered or the digest has not been decrypted with the private key of the corresponding public key.

“Otherwise, either the message or signature has been altered or the digest has not been decrypted with the private key of the corresponding public key.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If both digests are identical, the data has not been changed.

“If both digests are identical, the data has not been changed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Each shard consists of its own nodes or validators that apply a PoW or staking or voting consensus mechanism.

“Each shard consists of its own nodes or validators that apply a PoW or staking or voting consensus mechanism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sharding partitions a P2P network to improve blockchain's performance.

“Sharding [75] that partitions a P2P network is introduced to improve blockchain's performance.”

• cites [75] Yu, 2020, Survey: sharding in blockchains, IEEE Access sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Each block in the distributed ledger always has a distinctive cryptographic signature associated with a timestamp which makes the ledger auditable and unchangeable.

“In addition, each block in the distributed ledger always has a distinctive cryptographic signature associated with a timestamp which makes the ledger auditable and unchangeable.”

May combine two claims.

In Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS), a group of rich nodes can dominate the network and decide who will be the witness.

“As a result, a group of rich nodes can dominate the network and decide who will be the witness.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The decentralized ledger eliminates the need for the central control point, resulting in a high level of equity among the participants of the blockchain.

“This eliminates the need for the central control point, resulting in a high level of equity among the participants of the blockchain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Leased Proof of Stake (LPoS) has been suggested to overcome the drawbacks of standard PoS.

“LPoS has been suggested to overcome the drawbacks of standard PoS.”

• cites [69] Hakak, 2020, Securing smart cities through blockchain technology: architecture, requirements, and challenges, IEEE Network sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Light nodes can only store the header of the blockchain (keys) while the full nodes store the complete distributed ledger.

“Light nodes can only store the header of the blockchain (keys) while the full nodes store the complete distributed ledger.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A bandwidth measurement scheme is adopted to estimate the bandwidth that each participant contributes to the blockchain.

“Therefore, a bandwidth measurement scheme is adopted to estimate the bandwidth that each participant contributes to the blockchain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Public blockchains are mostly reliable if the users strictly abide by the rules and regulations of the blockchain.

“Public blockchains are mostly reliable if the users strictly abide by the rules and regulations of the blockchain [86].”

• cites [86] Pan, 2018, Edgechain: an edge-IoT framework and prototype based on blockchain and smart contracts, IEEE Internet of Things J. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The blockchain can store and track the past records of a patient that are important for patient's care.

“Similarly, the blockchain can store and track the past records of a patient that are important for patient's care.”

May combine two claims.

Malicious access can be verified and disabled using smart contract-based authorisation.

“Malicious access can be verified and disabled using smart contract-based authorisation.”

May combine two claims.

Blockchain data is usually stored in multiple nodes on the P2P network, and the system is highly resistant to technological failures and malicious attacks.

“Blockchain data is usually stored in multiple nodes on the P2P network, and the system is highly resistant to technological failures and malicious attacks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The validators in public blockchain are unlimited and can not be trustworthy whereas a premeditated number of validators process transactions in the private blockchain which results in higher throughput and ensure strong privacy of users' data on the private distributed ledger.

“The validators in public blockchain are unlimited and can not be trustworthy whereas a premeditated number of validators process transactions in the private blockchain which results in higher throughput and ensure strong privacy of users' data on the private distributed ledger.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Blockchain enables users to define access rules for self-executing smart contracts, which guarantees the privacy and ownership of personal data.

“Blockchain enables users to define access rules for self-executing smart contracts, which guarantees the privacy and ownership of personal data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A sidechain with its own protocols and implementation can independently run and is completely isolated from the main chain.

“A sidechain with its own protocols and implementation can independently run and is completely isolated from the main chain.”

May combine two claims.

To alter a single transaction record, all subsequent records would need to be modified and colluding would be needed for the entire network.

“To alter a single transaction record, all subsequent records would need to be modified and colluding would be needed for the entire network.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

If the main chain is hacked or compromised, the sidechain can still operate likewise, the cyberattacks on the sidechain cannot affect the operation of the main chain.

“As a result, if the main chain is hacked or compromised, the sidechain can still operate likewise, the cyberattacks on the sidechain cannot affect the operation of the main chain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

If a transaction is submitted on a public blockchain, the transaction is tamper-proof and can never be altered or modified while a committed transaction can be updated in a private blockchain following consensus of a certain number of authorized participants.

“If a transaction is submitted on a public blockchain, the transaction is tamper-proof and can never be altered or modified while a committed transaction can be updated in a private blockchain following consensus of a certain number of authorized participants.”

May combine two claims.

Information is stored across a network of computers rather than on a single server, which stops hackers from compromising transaction data.

“In addition to that, information is stored across a network of computers rather than on a single server, which stops hackers from compromising transaction data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Smart contract services offer data provenance to users.

“In addition, smart contract services offer data provenance to users.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

To set up a network, public blockchains require no infrastructure costs, while private blockchains need wide-scale deployment and operational costs.

“To set up a network, public blockchains require no infrastructure costs, while private blockchains need wide-scale deployment and operational costs [119].”

• cites [119] Yang, 2020, Public and private blockchain in construction business process and information integration, Autom. ConStruct. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Goods traded in a complex supply chain using a traditional ledger cannot be traced back to their point of origin as quickly in other systems as in blockchain.

“Goods traded in a complex supply chain using a traditional ledger cannot be traced back to their point of origin as quickly in other systems as in blockchain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Another important blockchain type is called consortium blockchain, which is a semi-decentralized and governed by a group rather than a single entity.

“Another important blockchain type is called consortium blockchain, which is a semi-decentralized and governed by a group rather than a single entity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The sidechain refers to a separate blockchain which operates in parallel to the main blockchain and the sidechain is attached to the main chain by means of a two-way peg.

“The sidechain [121] refers to a separate blockchain which operates in parallel to the main blockchain and the sidechain is attached to the main chain by means of a two-way peg.”

• cites [121] Singh, 2020, Sidechain technologies in blockchain networks: an examination and state-of-the-art review, J. Netw. Comput. Appl. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All blockchain users have fair rights over the network to link, verify and track transaction activities.

“Consequently, all blockchain users have fair rights over the network to link, verify and track transaction activities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Historical data transactions in blockchain can assist in checking the authenticity of assets and avoiding fraudulent activities.

“Historical data transactions in blockchain can assist in checking the authenticity of assets and avoiding fraudulent activities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This enables data owners to control the exchange of their data on blockchain.

“This enables data owners to control the exchange of their data on blockchain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In blockchains, the main element of security is the utilization of PKI (private/public key infrastructure).

“In blockchains, the main element of security is the utilization of PKI (private/public key infrastructure).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Blockchain has an ability to transform how confidential information is shared to prevent fraud and illegal activities in any sector where protecting sensitive data from different applications including financial services, government, and healthcare is important.

“Moreover, blockchain has an ability to transform how confidential information is shared to prevent fraud and illegal activities in any sector where protecting sensitive data from different applications including financial services, government, and healthcare is important.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Blockchain archives data transactions and events in an integrity-preserved, authenticity-guaranteed manner by means of immutable hash chains and digital signatures.

“Blockchain archives data transactions and events in an integrity-preserved, authenticity-guaranteed manner by means of immutable hash chains and digital signatures.”

May combine two claims.

Data on a blockchain is more accurate, robust and transparent than on the conventional network.

“Consequently, data on a blockchain is more accurate, robust and transparent than on the conventional network.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Transaction data on the blockchain remains immutable over time.

“Immutability: Transaction data on the blockchain remains immutable over time.”

May combine two claims.

The processing of a transaction involves various steps, including defining heavy security, mining, validating, and storing it across multiple participants.

“The processing of a transaction involves various steps, including defining heavy security, mining, validating, and storing it across multiple participants [147].”

• cites [147] Jabbar, 2020, Investigating the link between transaction and computational costs in a blockchain environment, Int. J. Prod. Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Given complex IoT scenarios such as smart cities, eHealth, IoT data is enormous.

“Given complex IoT scenarios such as smart cities, eHealth, IoT data is enormous.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Blockchain users do not need to review too much paperwork to complete a transaction, as each party has access to a single, and unchangeable ledger.

“Blockchain users do not need to review too much paperwork to complete a transaction, as each party has access to a single, and unchangeable ledger.”

May combine two claims.

Blockchain does not require third parties or middleman and infrastructure's deployment cost for public blockchain to guarantee business operations, which can reduce the cost of operating business.

“Blockchain does not require third parties or middleman and infrastructure's deployment cost for public blockchain to guarantee business operations, which can reduce the cost of operating business [142].”

• cites [142] Bodkhe, 2020, Blockchain for industry 4.0: a comprehensive review, IEEE Access sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Cost reduction is one of the main aims for many businesses.

“Cost reduction is one of the main aims for many businesses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The blockchain allows users to monitor transactions across the network so that computer and data rights are retained.

“Essentially, the blockchain allows users to monitor transactions across the network so that computer and data rights are retained.”

May combine two claims.

Block time increases rapidly, reducing the overall system performance.

“Consequently, block time increases rapidly, reducing the overall system performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

One field of a new block's header always holds the hash value of metadata of the previous block, which makes the chain strongly immutable.

“One field of a new block's header always holds the hash value of metadata of the previous block, which makes the chain strongly immutable [143].”

• cites [143] Tanwar, 2020, Blockchain-based electronic healthcare record system for healthcare 4.0 applications, J. Inform. Secur. Appl.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The cost of completing a transaction is the computational cost of a blockchain.

“Wood et al. [146] reported the cost of completing a transaction as the computational cost of a blockchain.”

• cites [146] Wood, 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

IoT network is often susceptible to security vulnerabilities including DDoS, Ransomware and malicious attacks.

“IoT network is often susceptible to security vulnerabilities including DDoS, Ransomware and malicious attacks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There are a variety of mining techniques such as PoW, PoS, pBFT that require various levels of energy.

“There are a variety of mining techniques such as PoW, PoS, pBFT described above that require various levels of energy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In a Sybil attack, the malicious nodes create several identities to either flood the network with transactions or make false statements, such as fake traffic congestion.

“In a Sybil attack, the malicious nodes create several identities to either flood the network with transactions or make false statements, such as fake traffic congestion [7,10].”

• cites [7] Michelin, 2018, Speedychain: a framework for decoupling data from blockchain for smart citiesNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [10] Huang, 2019, Towards secure industrial IoT: blockchain system with credit-based consensus mechanism, IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

DDoS attacks are difficult to conduct on a network of blockchains.

“DDoS attacks are difficult to conduct on a network of blockchains.”

May combine two claims.

Although blockchain can withstand major security attacks such as Sybil, DDoS, selfish mining and Ransomware attacks, the existing blockchain has some inherent security flaws.

“Although blockchain can withstand major security attacks such as Sybil, Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS), selfish mining and Ransomware attacks, the existing blockchain has some inherent security flaws.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

PoW, which is the most decentralized mining process, solves a complicated mathematical puzzle that requires powerful computational hardware to perform transaction validation.

“For instance, PoW, which is the most decentralized mining process, solves a complicated mathematical puzzle that requires powerful computational hardware to perform transaction validation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Selfish mining is a bitcoin mining strategy in which groups of miners collaborate to increase their earnings.

“Selfish mining is a bitcoin mining strategy in which groups of miners collaborate to increase their earnings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A miner (or group of miners) tends to increase their revenue through selfish mining by strategically withholding and releasing blocks into the network.

“A miner (or group of miners) tends to increase their revenue through selfish mining by strategically withholding and releasing blocks into the network [36].”

• cites [36] Kang, 2019, Toward secure blockchain-enabled internet of vehicles: optimizing consensus management using reputation and contract theory, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Without robust monitoring of transactions, blockchain can be at risk of data loss and network disruption.

“Without robust monitoring of transactions, blockchain can be at risk of data loss and network disruption.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

IoT source code is stored by internet third parties and telecommunications companies, resulting in lack of trust among consumers.

“To ensure integrity has become the key research issue in IoT applications, as IoT source code is stored by internet third parties and telecommunications companies that result in lack of trust among consumers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This would trigger consumer's concerns about high running costs that would limit large scale implementation of blockchain-based systems.

“This would trigger consumer's concerns about high running costs that would limit large scale implementation of blockchain-based systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Although blockchain and IoT can support safe data sharing, storing all genres of health data on a blockchain causes a delay in committing transactions and risks data leakage and disclosure of patient's sensitive information.

“Although blockchain and IoT can support safe data sharing, storing all genres of health data on a blockchain causes a delay in committing transactions and risks data leakage and disclosure of patient's sensitive information.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

As the number of devices joining in an IoT network increases, a bottleneck problem can occur in the existing centralised systems while authenticating, approving, and connecting new nodes within the network.

“Further, as the number of devices joining in an IoT network increases, a bottleneck problem can occur in the existing centralised systems while authenticating, approving, and connecting new nodes within the network.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Ensuring integrity has become the key research issue in IoT applications.

“To ensure integrity has become the key research issue in IoT applications, as IoT source code is stored by internet third parties and telecommunications companies that result in lack of trust among consumers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Blockchain has emerged as a breakthrough technology that can potentially address some IoT security, privacy, and scalability problems.

“With the solutions of these IoT problems, blockchain known as DTL has emerged a breakthrough technology to potentially address some of the IoT security, privacy, and scalability problems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

If more than half of the machines running blockchain can control computing resources, they can alter consensus processes and stop the confirmation of new transactions for malicious purposes.

“If more than half of the machines running blockchain can control computing resources, they can alter consensus processes and stop the confirmation of new transactions for malicious purposes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Blockchain can resolve privacy and security issues if an IoT application needs a decentralized P2P ecosystem.

“(1) Blockchain can resolve privacy and security issue if an IoT application needs a decentralized P2P ecosystem.”

• cites [148] Kamran, 2020, Blockchain and internet of things: a bibliometric study, Comput. Electr. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Even for IoT devices with fairly large computational capabilities, the sophistication of the blockchain system will demand heavy technical and human resources.

“Even for IoT devices with fairly large computational capabilities, the sophistication of the blockchain system will demand heavy technical and human resources.”

May combine two claims.

Blockchain technology is susceptible to a message hijack, and DDoS attacks and these attacks are the most common on blockchain networks.

“Still, blockchain technology is susceptible to a message hijack, and DDoS attacks and these attacks are the most common on blockchain networks [32].”

• cites [32] Alladi, 2019, Blockchain applications for industry 4.0 and industrial IoT: a review, IEEE Access sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

With the BCIoT paradigm, no single organisation has control over the vast amount of data generated by IoT devices.

“With BCIoT paradigm, no single organisation has control over the vast amount of data generated by IoT devices.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In blockchain-based IoT, data leakage is rapidly detected and remedied.

“Therefore, data leakage is rapidly detected and remedied.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Security and privacy of the IoT ecosystem are significant concerns which have impeded its deployment on a broader scale.

“However, security and privacy of the IoT ecosystem are significant concerns which have impeded its deployment on a broader scale.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Blockchain could be a promising secured solution if an IoT application requires maintaining a payment process for its services without third-party control.

“(2) Blockchain could be a promising secured solution if IoT application requires to maintain payment process for its provided services without the control of third parties [149].”

• cites [149] Salah, 2019, Blockchain for AI: review and open research challenges, IEEE Access sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Blockchain technology enables participants to follow up on past transactions.

“Further, blockchain technology enables participants to follow up on past transactions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

DDoS attackers attempt to disrupt the network's mining process, e-wallets, crypto exchanges and other financial services.

“DDoS attackers attempt to disrupt the network's mining process, e-wallets, crypto exchanges and other financial services.”

May combine two claims.

Blockchain can secure data sharing across Cloud IoT enabled healthcare networks, with blockchain and Cloud managing user access and data sharing.

“Blockchain can secure data sharing across Cloud IoT enabled healthcare networks, in which blockchain and Cloud are the key contributors to manage user access and data sharing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Blockchain can be combined with distributed Cloud computing to make data storage and processing more scalable and efficient amongst IoT devices, homeowners, and external users.

“In particular, blockchain can be combined with distributed Cloud computing to make data storage and processing more scalable and efficient amongst IoT devices, homeowners, and external users.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Use of blockchain models in the health sector will transform healthcare delivery into better patient service and system security.

“Consequently, the use of blockchain models in the health sector will transform healthcare delivery into better patient service and system security.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Blockchain's smart contracts can automate controlling and authentication of any entry in the blockchain, ensuring security and protection for insecure healthcare settings.

“In particular, blockchain's smart contracts can automate controlling and authentication of any entry in the blockchain, ensuring security and protection for insecure healthcare settings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Cloud computing has virtually unlimited storage and computational resources that can deliver on-demand, reliable, and secure IoT services.

“Meanwhile, Cloud computing has virtually unlimited storage and computational resources that can deliver on-demand, reliable, and secure IoT services.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Cloud computing has virtually unlimited storage and computational resources.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Attackers can discover the identities of users or devices by analysing transaction patterns.

“Attackers can discover the identities of users or devices by analysing transaction pattern.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If IoT applications demand to preserve logs and traceability of sequential transactions, blockchain can be one of the most effective solutions.

“(3) If IoT applications demand to preserve logs and traceability of sequential transactions, the blockchain can be one of the most effective solutions.”

• cites [148] Kamran, 2020, Blockchain and internet of things: a bibliometric study, Comput. Electr. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

With its high-security features, blockchain shows high efficiency in managing smart city operations.

“With its high-security features, blockchain shows its high efficiency in managing smart city operations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Blockchain can provide advanced security services for smart cities applications.

“In addition, blockchain can provide advanced security services for smart cities applications.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Blockchain has the potential to transform clinical services such as health monitoring, patient diagnosis or medical intervention assessment.

“Blockchain has the potential to transform clinical services, such as health monitoring, patient diagnosis or medical intervention assessment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The most common means of storing and processing data is a central database in many existing systems.

“The most common means of storing and processing data is a central database in many existing systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The convergence of blockchain and Cloud computing enables smart city architectures to tackle security and system performance issues.

“The convergence of blockchain and Cloud computing enables smart city architectures to tackle the issue of security and system performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

One key challenge of integrating IoT with blockchain is handling the vast quantities of data produced by many IoT sensors on-chain.

“(1) One of the key challenges of integrating IoT with blockchain is how the vast quantities of data produced by many IoT sensors can be handled in on-chain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Another key issue is preserving network privacy and transaction confidentiality: anonymity of transaction history cannot be granted on public blockchain.

“(2) Another key issue is to preserve network privacy and transaction confidentiality: the anonymity of transaction history cannot be granted on public blockchain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Blockchain platforms offer smart services such as home surveillance, home management, and device access control in smart home scenarios.

“Blockchain platforms offer smart services such as home surveillance, home management, and device access control in smart home scenarios.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Blockchain can provide specialized, highly reliable, and productive health care services.

“Blockchain can provide specialized, highly reliable, and productive health care services.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The integration of Cloud computing with IoT and blockchain opens up a new paradigm named BCCoT, which will transfer applications' operation into a safe environment.

“The integration of Cloud computing with IoT and blockchain opens up a new paradigm named BCCoT, which will transfer applications' operation into a safe environment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Blockchain suffers from potentially lower speeds or high latency when processing transactions.

“Furthermore, the blockchain suffers from potentially lower speeds or high latency when processing transactions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Both Edge and Fog computing systems bring data processing closer to the data source, and data does not need to be sent to a remote Cloud or other centralised processing systems.

“Both the Edge and Fog computing systems bring facilitates of data processing closer to the data source, and data does not need to be sent to a remote Cloud or other centralised processing systems.”

May combine two claims.

Fog devices require mutual trust and protection along with the facilities of distributed computing because Fog devices are owned and managed by diverse entities.

“Fog devices require mutual trust and protection along with the facilities of distributed computing as Fog devices are owned and managed by diverse entities [116].”

• cites [116] Kochovski, 2019, Trust management in a blockchain based fog computing platform with trustless smart oracles, Future Generat. Comput. Syst. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Unlike conventional networks, routing decisions in SDN are made remotely on a controller instead of on each router.

“For instance, unlike conventional networks, routing decisions in SDN are made remotely on a controller instead of on each router.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The SDN architecture comprises three planes: Application, Control and Data plane.

“The SDN architecture depicted in Fig. 16 comprises three planes: 1) Application, 2) Control and 3) Data plane.”

May combine two claims.

Edge/Fog computing decreases the distance required for forwarding data and improves response time for services, especially for remote mission-critical applications.

“This decreases the distance required for forwarding data and improves response time for the services, especially for a remote mission-critical application.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Cloud of Things can transform the current IoT system into a system with minimal managerial effort, high efficiency and quality of service.

“Additionally, Cloud of Things can transform the current IoT system into a system with minimal managerial effort, high efficiency and quality of service.”