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Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide
Open accessAbstract
Working memory (WM) span tasks-and in particular, counting span, operation span, and reading span tasks-are widely used measures of WM capacity. Despite their popularity, however, there has never been a comprehensive analysis of the merits of WM span tasks as measurement tools. Here, we review the genesis of these tasks and discuss how and why they came to be so influential. In so doing, we address the reliability and validity of the tasks, and we consider more technical aspects of the tasks, such as optimal administration and scoring procedures. Finally, we discuss statistical and methodological techniques that have commonly been used in conjunction with WM span tasks, such as latent variable analysis and extreme-groups designs.
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“Cognitively-informed executive function tests also demonstrated superior predictive and ecological validity compared to informant-rated scales.131”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In other words, the low working memory conditions control for encoding, because the high working memory conditions involve both encoding and working memory maintenance/recall (29, 97).”
From Working memory and inhibitory control deficits in children with ADHD: an experimental evaluation of competing model predictions (2024) · cites this paper as [97]
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In the citing paper
“no study of ADHD-related heterogeneity has simultaneously measured and controlled for all three primary executive functions (Miyake et al., 2000), and conclusions may be limited by the use of single tasks to assess neurocognitive construct(s) (Conway et al., 2005).”
From Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD (2019) · cites this paper as Conway et al., 2005
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In the citing paper
“As noted by Coghill et al. (2014), no study of ADHD-related heterogeneity has simultaneously measured and controlled for all three primary executive functions (Miyake et al., 2000), and conclusions may be limited by the use of single tasks to assess neurocognitive construct(s) (Conway et al., 2005).”
From Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD (2019) · cites this paper as Conway et al., 2005
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In the citing paper
“The proportion of stimuli correct per trial (% recalled correctly) during the recall phases of the word span and stroop span tasks was used to assess working memory capacity as recommended (29, 97).”
From Working memory and inhibitory control deficits in children with ADHD: an experimental evaluation of competing model predictions (2024) · cites this paper as [97]
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In the citing paper
“Stated differently, 96% of a person’s executive function abilities are not captured by informant-rated scales (.22 = 4% shared variance between informant-rated and performance-based methods for assessing the same construct)131.”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
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“Informant-rated scales only correlate r≈.20 or lower with construct valid, performance-based executive function tests.131,135,138”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“the results revealed that traditional scoring of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV digit span backward subtest (a commonly used task assumed to test working memory) failed to predict working memory or achievement and instead showed moderate correspondence with fluid reasoning (general factor g)131.”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“some popular informant-rated executive function rating scales have been criticized for being, essentially, recycled ADHD rating scales, with a majority of items on at least some subscales appearing identical, or nearly identical, to DSM-5 ADHD symptom criteria131,135,138.”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“However, these two measurement modalities have shown non-significant to weak associations.131,136–138”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Based on the current literature, our conclusion is that informant-rated executive function rating scales cannot be used to assess neurocognitive abilities”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
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“A timed test of selective attention and concentration that has been validated against the D2 Test of Attention108,109.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [108]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“연구 참여 학생들의 작업 기억을 측정하기 위하여 본 연구에서는 Conway 외 5인 (2005)에서 활용한 읽기 폭 과제를 선택하였고, 이를 예비 검사를 통해 고등학교 2학년 학생들의 수준에 맞추어 수정하였다.”
From Effects of Task-Induced Involvement Load and Working Memory on Korean High School Students’ Second Language Vocabulary Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Conway et al., 2005
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Working memory and interference: A comment on Jenkins, Myerson, Hale, and Fry (1999)
Oberauer, K., & Süß, H. (2000) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03213013 · Cited by 21
Oberauer, K., Süß, H., Wilhelm, O., & Wittman, W. (2004) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.001 · Cited by 15
Self-citationDevelopmental and Computational Approaches to Variation in Working Memory
Munakata, Y., Morton, J. B., & O’Reilly, R. C. (2008) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195168648.003.0007 · Cited by 10
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Baddeley, A. D. (1986).Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Ebbinghaus, H. (1897). Über eine neue Methode zur Prü fung geistiger Fähigkeiten und ihre Anwendung bei Schulkindern On a new method of testing mental abilities and its application with school children].Zeitschrift für die Psychologie,13, 401–459.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Diamond, A. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 · Cited by 13,268
Executive functions and self-regulation
Hofmann, W., Schmeichel, B. J., & Baddeley, A. D. (2012) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.01.006 · Cited by 1,965
Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028228 · Cited by 1,782
Function in the human connectome: task-fMRI and individual differences in behavior
Barch, D. M., Burgess, G. C., Harms, M. P., Petersen, S. E., Schlaggar, B. L., Corbetta, M., Glasser, M. F., Curtiss, S., Dixit, S., Feldt, C., et al. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.033 · Cited by 1,529
Chapter 20 What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory?
Cowan, N. (2008) · Progress in Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(07)00020-9 · Cited by 1,394
Metadata
- Authors
- Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Chicago (US)
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (DE)
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Conway, Andrew R. A.
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2005-10
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 769-786
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2164740960
- Cited by
- 2,882
- References
- 103
- Citations by year
- 2026: 105 · 2025: 177 · 2024: 165 · 2023: 140 · 2022: 150 · 2021: 186 · 2020: 176 · 2019: 218 · 2018: 161 · 2017: 176 · 2016: 170 · 2015: 187 · 2014: 151 · 2013: 159 · 2012: 137
- FWCI
- 7.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- working memory span, operation span, reading span, working memory capacity, reliability statistics, validity, test administration, scoring methods, latent variable analysis
- MeSH terms
- Group Processes, Humans, Memory, Psychological Theory, Reading
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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