The DOI matches its Crossref record; 62 of the 62 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 50 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Working memory training in typically developing children: A multilevel meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Working memory (WM) training in typically developing (TD) children aims to enhance not only performance in memory tasks but also other domain-general cognitive skills, such as fluid intelligence. These benefits are then believed to positively affect academic achievement. Despite the numerous studies carried out, researchers still disagree over the real benefits of WM training. With this meta-analysis (m = 41, k = 393, N = 2,375), we intended to resolve the discrepancies by focusing on the potential sources of within-study and between-study true heterogeneity. Small to medium effects were observed in memory tasks (i.e., near transfer). The size of these effects was proportional to the similarity between the training task and the outcome measure. By contrast, far-transfer measures of cognitive ability (e.g., intelligence) and academic achievement (mathematics and language ability) were essentially unaffected by the training programs, especially when the studies implemented active controls (g¯\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$ \overline{g} $$\end{document} = 0.001, SE = 0.055, p = .982, τ2 = 0.000). Crucially, all the models exhibited a null or low amount of true heterogeneity, which was wholly explained by the type of controls (nonactive vs. active) and by statistical artifacts, in contrast to the claim that this field has produced mixed results. Since the empirical evidence shows the absence of both generalized effects and true heterogeneity, we conclude that there is no reason to keep investing resources in WM training research with TD children.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This multilevel meta-analysis of 41 studies (393 effect sizes, N = 2,375) finds that working memory training in typically developing children produces near-transfer memory benefits but no reliable far-transfer effects on intelligence or academic achievement. With active controls, far-transfer effects are essentially zero, and true heterogeneity is null or low.
Key findings
- Near-transfer effects were small to medium: overall \( \bar{g} = 0.389 \), SE = 0.056, p < .001; nearest-transfer effects were larger (\( \bar{g} = 0.468 \)) than less-near-transfer effects (\( \bar{g} = 0.261 \)).
- Far-transfer effects were small overall (\( \bar{g} = 0.092 \), SE = 0.033, p = .015), but became null with active controls (\( \bar{g} = 0.001 \), SE = 0.055, p = .982, \( \tau^2 = 0.000 \)).
- Far-transfer follow-up effects were null (\( \bar{g} = 0.006 \), SE = 0.022, p = .809), while near-transfer follow-up effects were \( \bar{g} = 0.239 \), SE = 0.103, p = .059.
- True heterogeneity was null or low across models; when present, it was explained by control type, baseline differences, transfer distance, and a few influential cases, not by age or training-task type.
Methods
- Systematic search of MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Science Direct, and ProQuest Dissertation & Theses, plus reference lists, retrieved 3,080 records; 41 studies from 2007–2019 met inclusion criteria.
- Included typically developing children (maximum mean age = 16 years), a WM training condition, at least one control group, objective cognitive/academic tasks, pre-post design, non-self-selected participants, and sufficient data for effect sizes.
- Used robust variance estimation with hierarchical weights to model nested effect sizes and estimate within-cluster (\( \omega^2 \)) and between-cluster (\( \tau^2 \)) true heterogeneity; moderators included baseline difference, control group, age, training-task type, outcome measure, and near-transfer type.
Limitations
- The paper states that most primary studies examined preschool and primary school children, with only a fraction including adolescents, making findings less generalizable to typically middle/high school students (e.g., 12–16 years).
- The paper states that follow-up models included limited numbers of studies, so no further analysis was conducted for those models.
- Evident from the text: effect-size calculations assumed a pre-post-test correlation of \( r_{xx} = r = .700 \) because primary studies rarely reported these values, though the authors replicated analyses using correlations from .500 to .800 and observed no significant differences.
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Claims the paper makes
31 Own interpretation · 29 Own result · 14 Own method · 9 Partly supported · 7 Supported · 6 No full text of the sources · 3 Sources not found · 3 No basis given · 2 Not supported · 1 Mixed support · 1 Not checked yet · accuracy not yet measured
Some cited sources support this claim and some don’t — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Interestingly, several meta-analyses have estimated within-and between-study true heterogeneity in WM training to be null or low, both with near-transfer and far-transfer effects.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Critique of the Meta-Analytic Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sala et al., 2019b source
- Supportedcites Aksayli et al., 2019 source
The Discussion reports no true within- or between-study heterogeneity for far-transfer effects after controlling for baseline differences. Section 4.2.1 reports low residual heterogeneity for near-transfer effects after accounting for moderators and influential effects. This paper supports the cited statement as one of the meta-analyses, though it does not itself establish what several meta-analyses found. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Disputedcites Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results section, “Effects of Working Memory Training on Near Transfer Measures” (page unavailable), explicitly says near-transfer findings vary across studies and that true heterogeneity is present. The Results also report true heterogeneity between studies for intermediate-transfer measures. Thus, this paper contradicts the claim that heterogeneity is null or low across transfer outcomes; a near-zero far-transfer effect is not the same as low heterogeneity. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“Moreover, it is unlikely that WM training exerts positive far-transfer effects on subgroups of individuals (e.g., underachievers at baseline assessment; Jaeggi et al., 2011).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
What the sources say
- Disputedcites Jaeggi et al., 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (page unavailable) report positive far transfer to fluid intelligence in the subgroup of children with large working-memory training gains, contrary to the claim that positive effects are unlikely in subgroups. The Discussion (page unavailable) finds no significant difference in transfer between children with high and low initial fluid-intelligence performance; it does not identify baseline underachievers as unlikely to benefit. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Disputed
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“Second and most important, our findings support recent empirical evidence showing that WM and fluid intelligence do not share the same neural mechanisms as previously hypothesized (e.g., Halford et al., 2007;Jaeggi et al., 2008;Strobach & Karbach, 2016;Taatgen, 2013Taatgen, , 2016)).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Practical and Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Halford et al., 2007 source
- Disputedcites Jaeggi et al., 2008 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract states the opposite: working memory and fluid intelligence seem to rely on similar neural networks, particularly in lateral prefrontal and parietal cortices. Its qualification that they are not identical constructs does not establish that they rely on different neural mechanisms. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Strobach & Karbach, 2016 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Both meta-analyses reach the conclusion that while WM training exerts a medium effect on memory-task performance (near transfer), no other cognitive or academic skills (far transfer) seem to be affected, regardless of the population examined; in particular, no effects are observed when active controls are implemented to rule out placebo effects”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > The Meta-Analytic Evidence
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results section reports significant, moderate effects on verbal and visuo-spatial working-memory measures, supporting the claim that training benefits memory-task performance. But it classifies those measures as intermediate transfer; its separate near-transfer section describes large effects on tasks similar or identical to those trained. The claimed effect size therefore does not match the paper’s near-transfer category. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Supportedcites Sala et al., 2019a source
The Working-Memory Training section reports that meta-analyses found improved performance on memory tasks. Box 3 describes the effect on several memory tests as moderate and reliable, supporting the claim of a medium near-transfer effect. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“With TD children (aged 3 to 16), Sala and Gobet (2017) found a medium effect (𝑔̅ = 0.46) with near transfer and a modest effect with far transfer (𝑔̅ = 0.12), with the qualification that the better the quality of the design (use of an active control group), the smaller the effect sizes.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > The Meta-Analytic Evidence
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Sala & Gobet, 2017 source
The Far-Transfer Effects section reports an overall effect size of 0.12 in this meta-analysis of typically developing children. The Conclusions describe far-transfer effects as little or nonexistent, consistent with calling the reported effect modest. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“With TD children (aged 3 to 16), Sala and Gobet (2017) found a medium effect (𝑔̅ = 0.46) with near transfer and a modest effect with far transfer (𝑔̅ = 0.12), with the qualification that the better the quality of the design (use of an active control group), the smaller the effect sizes.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > The Meta-Analytic Evidence
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Sala & Gobet, 2017 source
The Near-Transfer Effects section reports an overall effect size of 0.46 (95% CI [0.35, 0.57]). The Conclusions identify the population as typically developing children. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“With TD children (aged 3 to 16), Sala and Gobet (2017) found a medium effect (𝑔̅ = 0.46) with near transfer and a modest effect with far transfer (𝑔̅ = 0.12), with the qualification that the better the quality of the design (use of an active control group), the smaller the effect sizes.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > The Meta-Analytic Evidence
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Sala & Gobet, 2017 source
The Moderators analysis reports smaller far-transfer effect sizes with active controls (0.05) than with passive controls (0.18), though the control-group moderator was only marginally significant. The Near-Transfer Effects and Far-Transfer Effects sections also report the cited overall effect sizes of 0.46 and 0.12, respectively. No moderator analysis was run for near-transfer effects. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The effect size was 𝑔̅ = 0.37 for near transfer, and 𝑔̅ = 0.02 for far transfer.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > The Meta-Analytic Evidence
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Sala et al., 2019a sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Working-Memory Training section reports near-zero generalized benefits in a meta-analysis of children and adolescents with learning disabilities. It does not give a far-transfer estimate of g = 0.02; searches for 0.02 and 0.37 found neither estimate in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The effect size was 𝑔̅ = 0.37 for near transfer, and 𝑔̅ = 0.02 for far transfer.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > The Meta-Analytic Evidence
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Sala et al., 2019a sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Working-Memory Training section says training appears to improve performance on memory tasks and reports similar findings for children and adolescents with learning disabilities. It does not give a near-transfer effect size of g=0.37 or a far-transfer effect size of g=0.02 for that population (searched both values and the population). (LLM, conf=0.82)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“This result supports the validity of Noack et al.'s (2009) taxonomy of transfer distance, which was used here.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Noack et al., 2009 source
Section 4, “A taxonomy of transfer distance,” sets out Noack et al.’s classification of transfer within narrow abilities, within broad abilities, and across broad abilities. The assertion that the citing study’s result supports the taxonomy’s validity is the citing authors’ own inference, not a finding attributed to Noack et al. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
- It may state two separate claims as one. 32
- Probably not a substantial claim. 14
- The quote only partly states this claim. 5
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Both meta-analyses reach the conclusion that while WM training exerts a medium effect on memory-task performance (near transfer), no other cognitive or academic skills (far transfer) seem to be affected, regardless of the population examined; in particular, no effects are observed when active controls are implemented to rule out placebo effects”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > The Meta-Analytic Evidence
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Immediate Effects of Working Memory Training on Far Transfer Measures; page unavailable) find near-zero, nonsignificant effects for several cognitive and academic outcomes with treated controls, supporting the main far-transfer conclusion. But they also report a small, significant reading-comprehension effect before excluding problematic comparisons, so “no effects” is too absolute. The Results (Effects of Working Memory Training on Near Transfer Measures; page unavailable) describe near-transfer effects as large, rather than medium. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Supportedcites Sala et al., 2019a source
The Working-Memory Training section reports improvements on memory tasks but near-zero effects on intelligence, cognitive control, and academic skills across the populations discussed. It says the lack of generalized benefits is particularly evident with active controls. Box 3 describes the positive effect on memory tests as moderate. (LLM, conf=0.91)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“When present at all, true heterogeneity is accounted for by the type of control group used (active or non-active), statistical artifacts such as pre-post-test regression to the mean due to baseline differences between the experimental and control groups, and, to a lesser extent, a few extreme effect sizes.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Critique of the Meta-Analytic Evidence
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sala et al., 2019b source
- Partly supportedcites Aksayli et al., 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (section 4.1.1) attribute observed far-transfer heterogeneity to regression to the mean, and sections 3.7 and 4.2.2 describe excluding extreme effect sizes. But section 3.4 only identifies active versus non-active control groups as a moderator considered; the reported near-transfer heterogeneity in section 4.2.2 is mainly explained by baseline differences and the type of memory task, not control-group type. The claim therefore overstates what the paper says explains heterogeneity. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Partly supportedcites Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Immediate Effects on Far Transfer Measures; page unavailable) report differences by control-group type and show that unusually large effects or problematic pretest-to-posttest changes affect some findings. The paper does not establish that regression to the mean from baseline group differences explains true heterogeneity. Its Results on near and intermediate transfer also identify other moderators, so the claim that the listed factors account for heterogeneity whenever it occurs is too broad. (LLM, conf=0.82)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“WM capacitythat is, the maximum amount of information that WM can store and manipulate -steadily increases throughout infancy and childhood up to adolescence (Cowan, 2016;Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, & Wearing, 2004), both due to maturation and increase in knowledge (Cowan, 2016;Jones, Gobet, & Pine, 2007).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Introduction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Cowan, 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Development of Working Memory Capacity?” (page unavailable), Cowan reports steady improvement in working-memory test performance from ages 4 to 15; the infant-studies section also describes apparent gains during infancy. But “The Working Memory Capacity Growth Hypothesis” says that a simple increase in capacity across ages remains unproven, while “The Factor of Increasing Knowledge” treats knowledge as a contributor to performance rather than establishing that it increases basic capacity. The claim overstates a steady capacity increase from infancy through adolescence and its proposed causes. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gathercole et al., 2004 source
- Partly supportedcites Jones et al., 2007 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Interaction of phonological working memory with LTM knowledge,” the paper explains that accumulated knowledge can increase how much information children hold in working memory. It does not establish a steady increase from infancy through adolescence or show that maturation drives it; instead, it says developmental changes in capacity may not be necessary to explain the performance changes studied. (LLM, conf=0.87)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“This outcome is in line with the findings ofMelby-Lervåg et al. (2016) and corroborate the idea that transfer is function of distance between training task and target task rather than the features of the training program per se (e.g.,Byrne et al., 2019;Pergher et al., 2019).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method defines near transfer by similarity to the trained task, and the Results report large effects on similar or identical tasks. The Discussion finds virtually no evidence that training type or dose moderates far transfer. But it also reports moderators of near and intermediate transfer, so it does not establish that transfer depends on task similarity rather than training-program features in general. The supplied passages have section labels but no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Could not verifycites Byrne et al., 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (pp. 12–13) examines overlap and differences between backward-recall and n-back tasks, not transfer after training. A search for training transfer found references to other studies but no passage in this paper establishing that transfer depends on task similarity rather than features of the training program. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not matchedcites Pergher et al., 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Furthermore, as the same pattern of results has been found in adults, older adults, and children with learning disabilities (Aksayli et al., 2019;Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016;Sala et al., 2019a), the most parsimonious and plausible conclusion is that WM training does not lead to far transfer.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Aksayli et al., 2019 source
The Discussion (section 5; page unavailable) says that no generalized far-transfer effects occurred regardless of age or type of population. It also says the proposed stronger benefits for people with low working memory are not supported. This supports the attributed pattern in adults, older adults, and children with learning disabilities, although the paper does not give a separate estimate for each group in that passage. (LLM, conf=0.89)
- Supportedcites Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016 source
The Method (Moderator Variables; page unavailable) groups studies by children, adults, and older adults and by learning-disorder status. The Discussion (page unavailable) reports virtually no evidence that age or learning difficulties moderate far transfer, and the Conclusions (page unavailable) find no evidence that working-memory training improves far-transfer abilities. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Supportedcites Sala et al., 2019a source
The Working-Memory Training section reports near-zero far-transfer effects in healthy adults and similar outcomes in children and adolescents with learning disabilities. It also says a large investigation found that effects in older adults were small and limited to memory tasks. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Such convergent findings at different levels of empirical evidence (experimental, correlational, and neural) is a successful example of triangulation that does not leave much room for further debate (Campbell & Fiske, 1959;Munafò & Smith, 2018).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Practical and Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campbell & Fiske, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Munafò & Smith, 2018 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Repeating experiments is not enough” (page unavailable), the paper defines triangulation as using multiple approaches to one question and says agreement across methodologies makes artefacts less likely. It does not assess the citing sentence’s particular experimental, correlational, and neural findings, or say that their convergence leaves little room for further debate. (LLM, conf=0.84)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Excluding the influential effect and merging the statistically dependent effects lowered the between-study true heterogeneity to a non-significant amount (τ 2 = 0.010, p = .234).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Near Transfer
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The overall effect size was 𝑔̅ = 0.389, SE = 0.056, 95% CI [0.271; 0.507], m = 29, k = 123, df = 18.8, p < .001,ω 2 = 0.006, τ 2 = 0.059.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Near Transfer
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Crucially, all the models exhibited a null or low amount of true heterogeneity, wholly explained by the type of controls (non-active vs. active) and statistical artifacts, in contrast to the claim that this field has produced mixed results.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The overall effect size of the RVE intercept model was 𝑔̅ = 0.092, SE = 0.033, 95% CI [0.021; 0.163], m = 34, k = 146, df = 14.8, p = .015,ω 2 = 0.000, τ 2 = 0.000.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Far Transfer
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The near-transfer models show slightly higher between-study true heterogeneity, which is partly explained by the type of near transfer (nearest vs. less near).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The type of control group and Type of training were not significant moderators either (p = .845and ps ≥ .477,respectively).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Near Transfer
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The examination of true heterogeneity reveals that the meta-analytic models exhibit high internal consistency.No appreciable within-study true heterogeneity is observed (ω 2 ≈ 0.000 in all the models).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When non-active controls were used, the overall effect size was 𝑔̅ = 0.139, SE = 0.045, 95% CI [0.034; 0.243], m = 21, k = 75, df = 8.2, p = .015,ω 2 = 0.000, τ 2 = 0.005.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Far Transfer
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regarding far transfer, this heterogeneity is very low and is accounted for by the type of control group, baseline differences, and a few influential cases.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The meta-regression showed that neither Baseline nor Age were a significant moderator (p = .154and p = .914,respectively).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Near Transfer
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings were clear: whereas WM training fosters the performance on memory tasks, small (with non-active controls) to null (with active controls) far-transfer effects are observed.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain
“By contrast, small to null effects are found on far-transfer measures (i.e., fluid intelligence, attention, language, and mathematics).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In total, we found 41 studies, conducted from 2007 to 2019, that met all the inclusion criteria (Appendix A in the Supplemental materials).These studies included 393 effect sizes and a total of 2,375 participants.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Inclusion Criteria
plainn = 2,375- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, the distribution of WM skills in TD children encompasses a larger range (which reduces biases related to range restriction), and it is more homogeneous across studies.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Introduction
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is thus reasonable to believe that if WM skills could be improved by training, the benefits would spread across many other cognitive and real-life skills.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“WM capacity is positively correlated with essential cognitive functions such as fluid intelligence and attentional processes (Engle, 2018;Kane, Hambrick, & Conway, 2005;Süß, Oberauer, Wittmann, Wilhelm, & Schulze, 2002).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Introduction
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, and probably most importantly, TD children represent that population in which cognitive skills are still developing, and brain plasticity is at its peak.In other words, TD children are the most likely to benefit from cognitive-training interventions.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Introduction
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most obvious, the population of TD children is larger than the population of children with learning disabilities, who suffer from different disorders (e.g., ADHD, dyslexia, and language impairment).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, a null result would cast serious doubts on the possibility to obtain generalized effects in other populations as well (e.g., healthy adults).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Introduction
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“It is widely acknowledged that general cognitive ability is a major predictor of academic achievement and job performance (Detterman, 2014;Gobet, 2016;Schmidt, 2017;Wai, Brown, & Chabris, 2018).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Introduction
What the sources say
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, the selection model estimated some publication bias (𝑔̅ = 0.196).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Near Transfer
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The inter-rater agreement was 98%; here and elsewhere, the two raters resolved every discrepancy by discussion;”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Moderators
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Due to the limited number of studies included in this model, no further analysis was conducted.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Follow-up.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That being said, it is worth noting that most of the primary studies have investigated the effects of WM training in preschool and primary school TD children (see Descriptive Statistics section).Only a fraction of the primary studies include adolescent samples, which makes our findings somewhat less generalizable with typically middle/high school students (e.g., 12-16 years of age).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Conclusions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“No missing study was retrieved with either the L0 or R0 estimator.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Near Transfer
plain- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Otherwise, between-study true heterogeneity would occur even after averaging the effect sizes within the same study.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cohen's kappa was κ = 1.00;”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Moderators
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The two authors coded each effect size independently and reached 100% agreement.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Meta-Analytic Models
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The follow-up overall effects are consistent with this pattern of results.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The inter-rater agreement was 97%.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Moderators
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cohen's kappa was κ = .98;”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Moderators
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since the empirical evidence shows an absence of generalized effects and true heterogeneity, we conclude that there is no reason to keep investing resources in WM training research with TD children.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Abstract
boostedn = 2,375- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, this result suggests that the memory tests (near transfer) used in the primary studies are correlated to each other and can be averaged by study to get more precise measures.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Brain imaging data suggest that WM performance is associated with increased network segregation, whereas the opposite pattern occurs when participants are asked to solve fluid intelligence tasks (Lebedev, Nilsson, & Lövdén, 2018).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Practical and Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lebedev, Nilsson, & Lövdén, 2018 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, WM and fluid intelligence do not appear isomorphic or even causally related, which would explain why WM training fails to induce any far-transfer effect despite the wellknown correlation between measures of WM capacity, fluid intelligence, and academic achievement.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Practical and Theoretical Implications
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This pattern of results has been replicated in many different domains and appears to be a constant in human cognition (for a review, see Sala & Gobet, 2019).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Practical and Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Sala & Gobet, 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, nearest transfer effects do not constitute any robust evidence for cognitive enhancement.Rather, they are clearly a measure of children's boosted ability to perform the training task or one of its variants.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Practical and Theoretical Implications
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there is no theoretical reason nor any empirical evidence to believe that WM training exerts a detrimental effect on one's cognition.”
- Also stated in: § Practical and Theoretical Implications · hedged
“Although there seems to be no reason to believe that WM training negatively affects children's cognitive skills or academic achievement, implementing such programs would represent a waste of financial and time resources.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § Practical and Theoretical Implications · hedged
In the paper
“As noted by Shipstead, Redick, and Engle (2012), even though some less-near-transfer memory tasks (e.g., odd-one-out task) are not part of the training programs, they still share some overlap with some training tasks (e.g., simple-span tasks).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Practical and Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Shipstead, Redick, and Engle, 2012 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather, they most likely acquire the ability to perform some memory tasks somewhat better than controls, which explains the small effect sizes reported in less-near-transfer measures and the absence of far transfer.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Practical and Theoretical Implications
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, WM and fluid intelligence do not appear isomorphic or even causally related, which would explain why WM training fails to induce any far-transfer effect despite the wellknown correlation between measures of WM capacity, fluid intelligence, and academic achievement.”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Practical and Theoretical Implications
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“meta-analytic conventions have consistently classified them within the span domain rather than with updating paradigms (Sala & Gobet, 2020)”
From The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2026) · cites this paper as Sala & Gobet, 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“WM training does not enhance children’s domain-general cognitive skills or academic achievement (Aksayli, Sala, & Gobet, 2019; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
From Cognitive and academic benefits of music training with children: A multilevel meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Sala & Gobet, 2020
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Discussion
“No appreciable within-study true heterogeneity is observed (ω 2 ≈ 0.000 in all the models).”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Near Transfer
“With regard to nearest-transfer effects, the meta-analytic mean was 𝑔̅ = 0.468, SE = 0.072, 95% CI [0.310; 0.626], m = 20, k = 76, df = 11.9, p < .001,ω 2 = 0.011, τ 2 = 0.054.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Moderators
“We evaluated four potential moderators based on previous meta-analyses:”
§ WORKING MEMORY TRAINING IN > Moderators
“6. Type of near transfer (categorical variable): Whether the task was the same as or similar to the WM training tasks”
Citations
Cites
Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement.
(2009) · PubMed Central · Cited by 44,859
Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & the PRISMA Group* (2009) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135 · Cited by 37,554
Conducting Meta-Analyses in R with the metafor Package
Viechtbauer, W. (2010) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v036.i03 · Cited by 20,464 · cited 1×
“The Metafor R package (Viechtbauer, 2010) was used.”
Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix.
Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0046016 · Cited by 17,116
Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. (2000) · Biometrics · doi:10.1111/j.0006-341x.2000.00455.x · Cited by 14,099
The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?
Baddeley, A. (2000) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01538-2 · Cited by 7,359 · cited 1×
“WM is the ability to store and manipulate the information needed to perform complex cognitive tasks (Baddeley, 1992, 2000).”
BackgroundIndividual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336
Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015) · doi:10.4135/9781483398105 · Cited by 5,542
Baddeley, A. (1992) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1736359 · Cited by 5,258
Outlier and influence diagnostics for meta-analysis
Viechtbauer, W., & Cheung, M. W.-L. (2010) · Research Synthesis Methods · doi:10.1002/jrsm.11 · Cited by 2,949 · cited 1×
“The Metafor R package (Viechtbauer, 2010) was used.”
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Cognitive and academic benefits of music training with children: A multilevel meta-analysis
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2020) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-020-01060-2 · Cited by 235
“For instance, WM training does not enhance children’s domain-general cognitive skills or academic achievement (Aksayli, Sala, & Gobet, 2019; MelbyLervåg et al., 2016; Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationCognitive Training: A Field in Search of a Phenomenon
Gobet, F. R., & Sala, G. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221091830 · Cited by 166
“However, we did find that placebos always occur in WM training when it comes to far transfer (Sala & Gobet, 2020b).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationMechanisms underlying training-induced cognitive change
von Bastian, C. C., Belleville, S., Udale, R. C., Reinhartz, A., Essounni, M., & Strobach, T. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-021-00001-3 · Cited by 147
Music Training and Nonmusical Abilities
Schellenberg, E. G., & Lima, C. F. (2023) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-032323-051354 · Cited by 107
Stress, working memory, and academic performance: a neuroscience perspective
Almarzouki, A. F. (2024) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890.2024.2364333 · Cited by 115
“Because the neural circuitry of wM varies from person to person, the development of universally successful wM training treatments is challenging; however, studies are ongoing (Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
Training Executive Functions to Improve Academic Achievement: Tackling Avenues to Far Transfer
Gunzenhauser, C., & Nückles, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624008 · Cited by 91
Effectiveness of youth psychotherapy delivered remotely: A meta-analysis.
Venturo‐Conerly, K. E., Fitzpatrick, O. M., Horn, R. L., Ugueto, A. M., & Weisz, J. R. (2021) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000816 · Cited by 53
“This finding aligns with a recent meta-analysis of attention/working memory training for typically developing children, which found that it produces reliably null effects; the authors recommended that no further resources be devoted to working memory training (Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
ResultLeveraging technology to personalize cognitive enhancement methods in aging
Ziegler, D. A., Anguera, J. A., Gallen, C. L., Hsu, W.-Y., Wais, P. E., & Gazzaley, A. (2022) · Nature Aging · doi:10.1038/s43587-022-00237-5 · Cited by 50
Individual differences in mathematical cognition: a Bert's eye view
Smedt, B. D. (2022) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101175 · Cited by 67
The domain-specific approach of working memory training
Peng, P., & Swanson, H. L. (2022) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2022.101035 · Cited by 45
Is working memory domain-general or domain-specific?
Nozari, N., & Martin, R. C. (2024) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2024.06.006 · Cited by 50
Cui, X., Zhang, S., Yu, S., Ding, Q., & Li, X. (2024) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2024.104549 · Cited by 37
Δημητρίου, Α., Golino, H. F., Spanoudis, G. C., Makris, Ν., & Greiff, S. (2021) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2021.101562 · Cited by 29
A neurobiological taxonomy of sedentary behavior for brain health
Zhang, Z., Chen, Y., Yu, Q., Li, J., Zou, L., Mavilidi, M. F., Green, C. S., Owen, N. G., Hallgren, M. Å., Raichlen, D. A., et al. (2025) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2025.09.002 · Cited by 35
Ganesan, K., Thompson, A., Smid, C. R., Cañigueral, R., Li, Y., Revill, G., Puetz, V. B., Bernhardt, B. C., Dosenbach, N. U. F., Kievit, R., et al. (2024) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-024-01672-w · Cited by 30
Zengilowski, A., Maqbool, I., Deka, S. P., Niebaum, J. C., Placido, D., Katz, B., Shah, P., & Munakata, Y. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00164-z · Cited by 30
Cartwright, K. B., & Palian, S. R. (2024) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2024.2418392 · Cited by 33
“Thus, we agree with claims by Sala and Gobet (2020, p. 411) that “on the basis of the available scientific evidence, the rational decision should be to redirect research efforts and resources to other means of fostering cognitive and academic skills, most likely using domain-specific methods”…”
Cubillo, A., Hermes, H., Berger, E., Winkel, K., Schunk, D., Fehr, E., & Hare, T. A. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13252 · Cited by 41
“Improvements in academic performance seem to be stronger for the language and reading domain and less consistent in mathematics, althoughthisvariesdependingonthetypeoftrainingregimeandstudy sample (see Sala & Gobet, 2020 and Titz & Karbach, 2014 for review and meta-analysis).”
BackgroundThe Structure of Processing Speed in Children and Its Impact on Reading
Gerst, E. H., Cirino, P. T., Macdonald, K. T., Miciak, J., Yoshida, H., Woods, S. P., & Gibbs, M. C. (2021) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2020.1862121 · Cited by 23
“However, given the difficulties associated with transfer when training other cognitive skills (e.g., WM; Jacob & Parkinson, 2015; Sala & Gobet, 2020), it may be more relevant to accommodate PS weakness in the context of content-focused interventions.”
BackgroundCan we enhance working memory? Bias and effectiveness in cognitive training studies
Rodas, J. A., Asimakopoulou, A. A., & Greene, C. M. (2024) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-024-02466-8 · Cited by 28
“…in many meta-analyses since it has been found that certain characteristics of the studies, such as the sample size or the use of active control groups, have an impact on the effect of training (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2016; Sala & Gobet, 2017, 2020; Soveri et al., 2017).”
BackgroundThe Impact of Working Memory Training on Children’s Cognitive and Noncognitive SkillsPreprint
Berger, E., Fehr, E., Hermes, H., Schunk, D., & Winkel, K. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3622985 · Cited by 25
“In view of the previous literature on WM training (e.g., Sala et al. 2019; Sala and Gobet 2020), we were, however, surprised by the magnitude of the effects on spillover outcomes.”
Framing Executive Function as a Construct and its Relation to Academic Achievement
Cirino, P. T. (2023) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12360 · Cited by 24
Studer-Luethi, B., Törmänen, M. R. K., Margelisch, K., Hogrefe, A. B., & Perrig, W. J. (2022) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-022-00242-x · Cited by 19
Cognitive and academic benefits of music training with children: A multilevel meta-analysisPreprint
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. R. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/7s8wr · Cited by 19
Self-citationCubillo, A., Hermes, H., Berger, E., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.11.19.390427 · Cited by 17
Park, A. T., & Mackey, A. P. (2021) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12304 · Cited by 18
A Rational Account of Cognitive Control Development in Childhood
Steinbeis, N. (2023) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-120221-040058 · Cited by 21
The Effectiveness of Working Memory Training for Children With Low Working Memory
Spencer‐Smith, M. M., Quach, J., Mensah, F. K., Roberts, G., Gathercole, S. E., Wake, M. A., & Anderson, P. J. (2020) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2019-4028 · Cited by 15
Sana, F., & Fenesi, B. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15060765 · Cited by 21
“These abilities are often treated as random variance rather than as key determinants that explain differential instructional effectiveness (Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
The neural correlates of working memory training in typically developing children
Jones, J. S., Adlam, A., Benattayallah, A., & Milton, F. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13721 · Cited by 15
Changing priorities in the development of cognitive competence and school learning: A general theory
Δημητρίου, Α., Spanoudis, G. C., Greiff, S., Makris, Ν., Panaoura, A., & Kazi, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.954971 · Cited by 32
Tzuriel, D., Weiss, T., & Kashy‐Rosenbaum, G. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12709 · Cited by 15
Tong, C. K.-Y., Yip, E. S.-K., & Wong, T. T. (2023) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2023.102181 · Cited by 15
Zhang, Z., Zhu, W., Tao, Y., Fan, X., Herold, F., Mavilidi, M. F., Huang, Z., Yu, Q., Wang, P., Lubans, D. R., et al. (2026) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10101-8 · Cited by 14
“Previous studies have shown that cognitive engagement can enhance executive functions; however, effects are typically confined to the specific tasks or cognitive domains that are directly practiced - a phenomenon known as near transfer (Karbach & Verhaeghen, 2014 ; Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
Zuber, S., Joly-Burra, E., Mahy, C. E. V., Loaiza, V. M., & Kliegel, M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105602 · Cited by 12
Román-Caballero, R., & Lupiáñez, J. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104916 · Cited by 12
Hospital-Based Modified Cogmed Working Memory Training for Youth With ADHD
Sandberg, S., & McAuley, T. (2021) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547211066487 · Cited by 12
“As noted by others, the lack of far transfer to domains that are known to be influenced by working memory capacity poses formidable challenges for the rationale of the Cogmed intervention (e.g., Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
BackgroundCognitive predictors of the overlap of reading and math in middle school
Cirino, P. T., Salentine, C. M., Farrell, A., Barnes, M. A., & Roberts, G. J. (2023) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102400 · Cited by 13
Executive functioning profiles and mathematical and reading achievement in Grades 2, 6, and 10
Carriedo, N., Rodríguez‐Villagra, O. A., Pérez, L., & Iglesias-Sarmiento, V. (2024) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101353 · Cited by 18
The Impact of Working-Memory Training on Children’s Cognitive and Noncognitive Skills
Berger, E., Fehr, E., Hermes, H., Schunk, D., & Winkel, K. (2024) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/732884 · Cited by 22
Why does the brain matter for education?
Thomas, M. S. C., & Arslan, Y. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12727 · Cited by 20
“This has become clear in research that has investigated the training of one putative ‘general’ function, working memory, which does not yield general cognitive benefits (Nozari & Martin, 2024; Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
Bates, K. E., & Farran, E. K. (2021) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101120 · Cited by 10
Transparency in Cognitive Training Meta-analyses: A Meta-review
Sandoval‐Lentisco, A., López‐Nicolás, R., Tortajada, M., López-López, J. A., & Sánchez‐Meca, J. (2024) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-024-09638-2 · Cited by 10
“Similarly, meta-analyses whose target was children did not seem to agree either (Karch et al., 2013; Kassai et al., 2019; Sala & Gobet, 2017, 2020; Scionti et al., 2020).”
Rojas‐Barahona, C. A., Gaete, J., Véliz-Campos, M., Castillo, R. D., Ramírez, S., & Araya, R. (2022) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-022-06875-9 · Cited by 9
Reading is complex: Implications for research and practice
Goldman, S. R. (2024) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2024.2418062 · Cited by 18
Stavroulaki, V., Giakoumaki, S. G., & Sidiropoulou, K. (2020) · Mechanisms of Ageing and Development · doi:10.1016/j.mad.2020.111415 · Cited by 10
The effects of working memory training in children revealed by behavioral responses and ERP
Xu, J., Deng, M., Nan, W., & Cai, D. (2021) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2310 · Cited by 8
Does working memory training in children need to be adaptive? A randomized controlled trial
Lau, R. C., Anderson, P. J., Gathercole, S. E., Wiley, J. F., & Spencer‐Smith, M. M. (2024) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14180 · Cited by 9
“improvements on tasks dissimilar in structure (intermediate transfer) and in other untrained cognitive and behavioral domains (far transfer) (Byrne et al., 2020; Gathercole et al., 2019; Kassai et al., 2019; Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
InfluentialGarcía-Madruga, J. A., Orenes, I., Chaves, J. Ó. V., & Veiga, I. G. (2022) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2022.26 · Cited by 10
“However, recent reviews (Sala & Gobet, 2017, 2020) suggest that the transfer effect of WM training to other cognitive abilities (fluid intelligence, academic skills, reading, or mathematics) is zero or, when observed, is minimal in typically developing school-children aged between 3 and 16 years.”
BackgroundA biopsychological–social view of mathematical development
Szűcs, D., & Mammarella, I. C. (2023) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2023.101332 · Cited by 15
Fifteen Common but Questionable Principles of Multimedia Learning
Feldon, D. F., Jeong, S., & Clark, R. E. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.005 · Cited by 14
“Accordingly, when placebo effects and publication bias (the increased likelihood of articles being published when they report positive results) were statistically accounted for, even the small positive effects could not be detected (Sala et al., 2019; Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
BackgroundChing, B. H., & Kong, K. H. C. (2022) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.12.013 · Cited by 9
Executive Functions: What are they Good for? A Perspective from Intervention Research
Barnes, M. A. (2023) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12371 · Cited by 10
Lau, R. C., Anderson, P. J., Wiley, J. F., Huang, D., Surjatin, F., McIntosh, P., Gathercole, S. E., & Spencer‐Smith, M. M. (2023) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/47496 · Cited by 7
“Working memory training benefits typically diminish with time, and with decreasing similarities between the training activity and outcome measure, providing consistent evidence for near transfer, less evidence for intermediate transfer, and little convincing evidence for far transfer [5-8].”
BackgroundDolgikh, A. G., Bayanova, L., & Chichinina, E. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1193472 · Cited by 9
“It is shown that verbal working memory is positively associated with fluid intelligence and attentional processes (Engle, 2018; Sala and Gobet, 2020).”
BackgroundZong, Z., & Schunn, C. D. (2023) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-023-09401-4 · Cited by 7
Meha, R., Obërtinca, R., der Fünten, K. A., Kai, L., & Schaefer, S. (2024) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102743 · Cited by 9
Purkart, R., Aleksieva, P., Mellah, S., Leblond‐Baccichet, G., & Belleville, S. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.323 · Cited by 7
Executive Functions and Academic Performance: The Moderating Role of Distress Tolerance
Andrés, M. L., Juric, L. C., Coni, A. G., Olsen, C. D., Vernucci, S., Galli, J. I., Introzzi, I. M., & Richaud, M. C. (2022) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12330 · Cited by 7
Yessimbekova, A. O., Galiyeva, A., Zhexembayeva, Z., Almukhambetova, B., & Abishev, N. (2025) · Journal of Education and Health Promotion · doi:10.4103/jehp.jehp_1245_24 · Cited by 7
“[15,16] Mindfulness training, which is increasingly acknowledged for its role in nurturing emotional regulation, [17] cognitive flexibility, [18] stress management, [19] and psychological well‑being, [20] has emerged as a promising avenue within this realm.”
Reina-Reina, C., Antón, E., & Duñabeitia, J. A. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14030229 · Cited by 12
Cognitive training: A Field in Search of a PhenomenonPreprint
Gobet, F. R., & Sala, G. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vxzq9 · Cited by 5
Self-citationThe (in)effectiveness of training domain-general skills to support early math knowledge
Fyfe, E. R., & Borriello, G. A. (2024) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12526 · Cited by 10
Diagon, S. L., Jacquel, M., der Henst, J. V., & Prado, J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0324547 · Cited by 4
The near- and far-transfer effects of cognitive training on attentional networks in women and men
Bednarek, H., Przedniczek, M., Olszewska, J. M., Niewiarowski, J., & Orzechowski, J. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2021.1916508 · Cited by 5
“Despite the controversy that surrounds the effectiveness of cognitive-training exercises, especially with regard to far-transfer effects (Sala & Gobet, 2017, 2020; Soveri et al., 2017), their diagnostic tasks, or the heterogeneity of samples within studies (e.g. age, experience, and gender of…”
BackgroundBates, K. E., & Farran, E. K. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/e3jvq · Cited by 3
Δημητρίου, Α., Spanoudis, G. C., Christou, C., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/f9sd2 · Cited by 4
The working memory modifiability: Effects of mediation on working memory and analogical thinking
Tzuriel, D., Hanuka-Levy, D., & Weiss, T. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.106061 · Cited by 3
Musical expertise and cognitive abilities: no advantage for professionals over amateurs
Talamini, F., Schellenberg, E. G., Grassi, M., & Lima, C. F. (2026) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.251613 · Cited by 4
Working memory training yields improvements in L2 morphosyntactic processing
Durand-López, E. M. (2024) · Language Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/23273798.2024.2359560 · Cited by 3
“Meta-analyses, however, show mixed results (e.g. Hou et al., 2020; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Sala & Gobet, 2020; Soveri et al., 2017; Weicker et al., 2016).”
ResultTraining Working Memory for Two Years – No Evidence of Transfer to IntelligencePreprint
Watrin, L., Hülür, G., & Wilhelm, O. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hc8je · Cited by 3
Wilkey, E. D., Gilmore, C. K., & Cragg, L. (2026) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2026.2629825 · Cited by 2
Advances in the management of ADHD in children and adolescents
Robaey, P., Rogers, M., & Schachar, R. J. (2026) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2024-082507 · Cited by 2
“108 Cognitive training remains of interest.”
Sargisson, R. J. (2023) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-19964-6_54 · Cited by 2
Concurrent predictors of mathematics achievement for 9-year-old children with Williams syndrome
Guimarães, V. N., & Mervis, C. Β. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-52639-7 · Cited by 3
“However, the findings of meta-analyses 51,52 of more than two decades of research examining working memory training as an intervention to increase academic achievement for individuals with cognitive or learning difficulties make it clear that working memory training is not the solution; effect…”
BackgroundPieniak, M., Rokosz, M., Nawrocka, P., Reichert, A., Żyżelewicz, B., Mahmut, M. K., & Oleszkiewicz, A. (2024) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2024.2343484 · Cited by 4
“Since the maturing nervous system is plastic and susceptible to changes (Bryck & Fisher, 2012; Zelazo & Carlson, 2012), multiple interventions have been aimed to improve WM (Rowe et al., 2019; Sala & Gobet, 2020).”
Teachers’ Experiences of Executive Functions in Grade R
Etokabeka, E. M. D. C., Masola, F., & Moen, M. C. (2023) · Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.59915/jes.2023.22.4.8 · Cited by 2
Basu, S., Phogat, R., Banerjee, B., & Parmananda, P. (2024) · Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1177/09731342241252533 · Cited by 3
A Systematic Realist Review of School-Based Working Memory Training
Song, J., MacQuarrie, S., Hennessey, A., & Zheng, Y. (2025) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000596 · Cited by 4
The Roles of Intelligence and Creativity for Learning Mathematics
Meier, M. A., & Grabner, R. H. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-44982-7_6-1 · Cited by 2
Process of Learning: Insights from Neuropsychology Studies and Asia-Pacific Perspectives
Yeo, D. J. S., Kwok, F. Y., & Chen, S. A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-2327-1_44-1 · Cited by 3
Grit and working memory training outcomes for children with low working memory
Spencer‐Smith, M. M., Weinman, A., Quach, J., et al. (2023) · Acta Paediatrica · doi:10.1111/apa.16835 · Cited by 2
Effects of Working Memory Strategies on Learning Lexical Collocations: The Arab Context
Sneida, T. I. G. A., Yahya, M. Y., & Husain, S. H. (2024) · 3L The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies · doi:10.17576/3l-2024-3004-12 · Cited by 2
Δημητρίου, Α., Golino, H. F., Spanoudis, G. C., MAKRIS, N., & Greiff, S. (2021) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ykde3 · Cited by 2
The Impact of Working Memory Training on Children's Cognitive and Noncognitive SkillsPreprint
Berger, E., Fehr, E., Hermes, H., Schunk, D., & Winkel, K. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4772583 · Cited by 2
QUESTIONÁRIO DE LEVANTAMENTO DE ESTRATÉGIAS PARA TREINOS COGNITIVOS
Barbosa‐Pereira, D., Rabelo, I. N., Pinheiro, I. F., & Alves, M. M. (2024) · Recital - Revista de Educação Ciência e Tecnologia de Almenara/MG · doi:10.46636/recital.v5i3.487 · Cited by 1
Kathios, N., Lopez, K. L., Gabard-Durnam, L. J., & Loui, P. (2024) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-024-02469-2 · Cited by 3
“Although there is debate about whether and how musical training transfers to skills in other domains (see Sala & Gobet, 2020 and Bigand & Tillman, 2022), converging evidence from several longitudinal studies, such as the LongGold project (https:// longg old. org/; Müllensiefen et al., 2022;…”
BackgroundUpdates on Working Memory Training in Deaf Children with Cochlear Implants
Kronenberger, W. G., & Pisoni, D. B. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-67188-3_23 · Cited by 1
Li, J., Chen, X., Hua, L., Wang, Z., Zhao, Y., Wang, X., & Liu, W. (2025) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.70047 · Cited by 2
“…doubt on the effectiveness of working memory training (Melby-Lervåg and Hulme 2013; Melby-Lervåg et al. 2016; Rodas et al. 2024; Sala et al. 2019; Sala and Gobet 2020) by suggesting that it may only have reliable near-transfer effects (i.e., task-dependent improvements) but not reliable…”
Gilmore, C. K., Bahnmueller, J., Baikie, A., Burke, S., Edginton, H., Hawkins, J., Rubini, A., Trundley, R., Tynemouth, A., & Xenidou‐Dervou, I. (2025) · Learning in Context · doi:10.1016/j.lecon.2025.100009 · Cited by 4
Music and Cognitive Development
Degé, F., Frischen, U., & Schwarzer, G. (2025) · Neurocultural health and wellbeing · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-72175-9_25 · Cited by 1
Horowitz‐Kraus, T., Cirino, P. T., Cutting, L. E., Hughes-Berheim, S. S., Wilkey, E. D., Barnes, M. A., Rosch, K. S., & Church, J. A. (2026) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2026.101722 · Cited by 7
“There are several meta-analyses of working memory interventions showing a lack of “ far transfer ” effects on mathematics (e.g., (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Sala and Gobet, 2020), suggesting that increases in working memory do not lead to changes in mathematics learning or performance.”
Recalibrating impact in STEM education: Empirical benchmarks for interpreting intervention effects
Bıçakçı, M., Stoeger, H., Wengler, D., & Ziegler, A. (2026) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2026.100803 · Cited by 2
Is working memory training efficient? Effects on IQ and school performance in Brazilian children
Barbosa‐Pereira, D., Martins, P. S. R., Ferreira‐Junior, L. A., da Costa, M. F. A., Paixão, J. P. C., Costa, R. R., Saldanha‐Silva, R., & Mansur‐Alves, M. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3921 · Cited by 1
The Roles of Intelligence and Creativity for Learning Mathematics
Meier, M. A., & Grabner, R. H. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-03945-4_6 · Cited by 2
Exekutive Funktionen bei Kindern: Kognitive Trainingsprogramme unter der Lupe
Arx, P. H.-V., & Möhring, W. (2023) · Lernen und Lernstörungen · doi:10.1024/2235-0977/a000426 · Cited by 1
Anxiety symptoms are distinctly related to working memory deficits in adults with ADHD
Rauch, A. A., Soble, J. R., & Silton, R. L. (2025) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2024.2449170 · Cited by 8
MLE Strategies as Determinants of Executive Functions
Tzuriel, D. (2021) · Social interaction in learning and development · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-75692-5_18 · Cited by 3
The Neural Correlates of Working Memory Training in Typically Developing Children – Working PaperPreprint
Jones, J. S., Adlam, A.-L. R., Benatayallah, A., & Milton, F. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.05.21.445110 · Cited by 1
Δημητρίου, Α., Golino, H. F., Spanoudis, G. C., Greiff, S., & Makris, N. (2021) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/nbxu3 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Sala, G., & Gobet, F.
- Affiliations
- Fujita Health University (JP)
- London School of Economics and Political Science (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Sala, Giovanni
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2020-01-14
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 423-434
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2963815297
- Semantic Scholar
- b4b4c8bd24401110fbad4e671be8cb1ef29984f3
- Cited by
- 148
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 7
- FWCI
- 2.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (submittedVersion)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Theses Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (17F17313)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- working memory training, typically developing children, near transfer, far transfer, fluid intelligence, academic performance, active control, statistical heterogeneity
- MeSH terms
- Academic Success, Child, Child Development, Cognition, Humans, Intelligence, Mathematics, Memory, Short-Term, Research Design, Teaching
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-08, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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