The DOI matches its Crossref record; 56 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 30 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression
Open accessAbstract
CONTEXT: Most environmental risk factors for psychiatric disorders cannot be studied experimentally, making causal attributions difficult. Can we address this question by using together 2 major methods for causal inference: natural experiments and specialized statistical methods? OBJECTIVE: To determine the causal relationship between dependent stressful life events (dSLEs) and prior depressive episodes (PDEs) and major depression (MD). DESIGN: Assessment of risk factors and episodes of MD at interview. Statistical analyses used the co-twin control and propensity score-matching methods. SETTING: General community. PARTICIPANTS: Four thousand nine hundred ten male and female twins from the Virginia Adult Twin Study of Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Episodes of MD. RESULTS: We found that dSLEs were strongly associated with risk for MD in female (odds ratio [OR], 5.85) and male (4.55) twins in the entire sample and, at considerably lower levels, in female (2.29) and male (2.19) monozygotic twins discordant for dSLE exposure. A case-control sample matched on propensity score showed a moderate association in female (OR, 1.79) and male (1.53) twins. A PDE strongly predicted risk for MD in female (OR, 3.68) and male (5.20) twins in the entire sample. In monozygotic pairs discordant for exposure, the association was weaker in male (OR, 1.41) and absent in female (1.00) twins. A case-control sample matched on propensity score showed a moderate association between PDE and depressive episodes in male (OR, 1.58) and female twins (1.66). CONCLUSIONS: Although dSLEs have a modest causal effect on the risk for MD, a large proportion of the observed association is noncausal. The same pattern is seen for PDEs, although the causal impact is somewhat more tenuous. For environmental exposures in psychiatry that cannot be studied experimentally, co-twin control and propensity scoring methods--which have complementary strengths and weaknesses--can provide similar results, suggesting their joint use can help with the critical question of causal inference.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Using 4,910 twins from the Virginia Adult Twin Study, the authors applied co-twin control and propensity-score matching to test whether dependent stressful life events (dSLEs) and prior depressive episodes (PDEs) causally increase risk for major depression (MD). Both exposures showed strong overall associations, but the causal effects were modest for dSLEs and weaker/more tentative for PDEs, with much of the association judged noncausal.
Key findings
- dSLEs predicted MD in the entire sample (female OR 5.85; male OR 4.55), but the association fell in monozygotic twins discordant for dSLE exposure (female OR 2.29; male OR 2.19) and in propensity-score-matched samples (female OR 1.79; male OR 1.53).
- PDEs predicted MD in the entire sample (female OR 3.68; male OR 5.20), but the association weakened in discordant monozygotic twins (male OR 1.41; female OR 1.00) and was moderate in propensity-score-matched samples (male OR 1.58; female OR 1.66).
- The authors conclude dSLEs have a modest causal effect on MD risk, while a large proportion of the observed association is noncausal; the same pattern appears for PDEs, though the causal impact is “somewhat more tenuous.”
Methods
- Participants were 4,910 male and female twins from the Virginia Adult Twin Study of Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders; same-sex female-female and male-male pairs were analyzed separately.
- Risk factors were dSLEs (interviewer-rated probably/clearly dependent events) and PDEs; MD episodes were assessed by DSM-IV criteria, with dSLE-MD analyses examining onset within 3 months and PDE analyses using MM1/FF1 episodes to predict MM2/FF2 episodes.
- Causal inference used co-twin control (twin pairs discordant for exposure, by zygosity) and propensity-score matching with 18 covariates for dSLE and 10 for PDE; analyses used logistic regression, multiple imputation, 90% CIs, and 1-tailed P values.
Limitations
- Stated: power was limited, especially for discordant twin analyses and the rarer PDE exposure; low power may contribute to the lack of more definitive findings.
- Stated: both methods assess a risk factor’s impact given the study population’s background exposures; a risk factor potent only in the presence of an uncommon background factor would typically produce a weak overall effect.
- Evident from the text: the design is observational; co-twin control does not control environmental experiences unique to one twin, and propensity matching can over- or under-control covariates. Also, PDE propensity analyses had limited overlap (mean C statistics 0.840 in male and 0.857 in female twins), which the authors call higher than ideal.
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Claims the paper makes
33 Own result · 30 Own method · 20 Own interpretation · 11 No basis given · 6 No full text of the sources · 4 Not checked yet · 1 Not supported · accuracy not yet measured
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the association between PDEs and depressive episode onset was considerably lower in discordant DZ pairs (OR, 2.31; 90% CI, 0.96–5.91; P=.06)”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
plaincorrelationaln = 119- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A case-control sample matched on propensity score showed a moderate association between PDE and depressive episodes in male (OR, 1.58) and female twins (1.66).”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“in female (2.29) and male (2.19) monozygotic twins discordant for dSLE exposure”
- Also stated in: § dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE · plain
“lower still in discordant MZ pairs (2.19; 1.25–3.93; P=.01)”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compared with the results in the entire sample, the association between a PDE and a subsequent depressive episode was considerably lower in discordant DZ pairs (OR, 2.04; 90% CI, 0.97–4.47; P=.06) and disappeared entirely in discordant MZ pairs (1.00; 0.45–2.23; P=.99).”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
plainn = 132- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In monozygotic pairs discordant for exposure, the association was weaker in male (OR, 1.41) and absent in female (1.00) twins.”
- Also stated in: § PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES · plain
“lower still in discordant MZ pairs (1.41; 0.64–3.14; P=.24).”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Results
plaincorrelationaln = 119- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In that sample, exposure to a PDE was strongly associated with the occurrence of 1 or more PDE onsets in the year before the FF4 interview (OR, 3.68; 90% CI, 2.66–5.04; P<.001).”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
boostedcorrelationaln = 2,002 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A PDE strongly predicted risk for MD in female (OR, 3.68) and male (5.20) twins in the entire sample.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Results
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The OR between PDE exposure and a depressive outcome in this analysis was 1.58 (90% CI, 0.87–2.88; P=.10).”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
plaincorrelationaln = 162- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the association between dSLE exposure and depressive episode onset was considerably lower but remained significant in discordant DZ pairs (OR, 3.23; 90% CI, 1.30–8.85; P=.02)”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
plaincorrelationaln = 108 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compared with observations in the entire sample, the association between dSLE exposure and depressive episode onset was still statistically significant but considerably lower in magnitude in discordant DZ pairs (OR, 3.31; 90% CI, 1.54–7.84; P=.004)”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 25
- Probably not a substantial claim. 19
- The quote only partly states this claim. 3
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“Increased rates of MD follow dSLEs7–9 and PDEs.10–12”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Disputedcites [7] Williamson DE Birmaher B Anderson BP al-Shabbout M Ryan ND Stressful life events in depressed adolescents: the role of dependent events during the depressive episode J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995 34 5 591 598 7775354 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The source is cited for the dSLE portion of the sentence, not the prior-depressive-episode portion. Its Abstract reports that depressed adolescents had more dependent stressful life events; the Discussion says most assessed events occurred during an existing depressive episode and that the study could not determine whether events preceded depression onset. It therefore does not support the claimed direction that increased rates of major depression follow dSLEs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [8] Kessler RC The effects of stressful life events on depression Annu Rev Psychol 1997 48 191 214 9046559 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] Surtees PG Miller PM Ingham JG Kreitman NB Rennie D Sashidharan SP Life events and the onset of affective disorder: a longitudinal general population study J Affect Disord 1986 10 1 37 50 2939122 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] Sjöholm L Lavebratt C Forsell Y A multifactorial developmental model for the etiology of major depression in a population-based sample J Affect Disord 2009 113 1–2 66 76 18558436 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [11] Kendler KS Gardner CO Prescott CA Toward a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in women Am J Psychiatry 2002 159 7 1133 1145 12091191 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [12] Kendler KS Gardner CO Prescott CA Toward a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in men Am J Psychiatry 2006 163 1 115 124 16390898 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Disputed
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our propensity score analysis produced a mean C statistic of 0.840, which is higher than ideal.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
plainn = 162- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A case-control sample matched on propensity score showed a moderate association in female (OR, 1.79) and male (1.53) twins.”
- Also stated in: § dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE · plain
“The OR between dSLE exposure and a depressive outcome in this sample was 1.79 (90% CI, 1.33–2.41; P=.001).”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Results
plaincorrelationaln = 155 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When we examined DZ and MZ twin pairs discordant for dSLE exposure, the association with MD fell substantially but remained statistically significant in both groups.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The OR observed in the propensity score analysis was similar and statistically significant in both male and female twins but also substantially lower than that observed in the general population.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the 4 resulting analyses (2 twin types in male and female twins) achieved statistical significance, although 2 of them produced trends suggesting a causal relationship.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The same pattern is seen for PDEs, although the causal impact is somewhat more tenuous.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Conclusions
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Twin pairs raised together are matched for their rearing environment and their genes (partly for dizygotic and completely for monozygotic pairs) although not for environmental experiences unique to each twin.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although dSLEs have a modest causal effect on the risk for MD, a large proportion of the observed association is noncausal.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Twin pairs raised together are matched for their rearing environment and their genes (partly for dizygotic and completely for monozygotic pairs) although not for environmental experiences unique to each twin.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we obtained a mean C statistic across the 10 imputations of 0.711, which indicates a good degree of overlap in propensity scores between the exposed and unexposed groups.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
hedgedn = 496- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Zygosity was determined by discriminate function analyses using “twin questions” validated against DNA genotyping.28”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > METHODS > SAMPLE
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [28] Kendler KS Prescott CA A population-based twin study of lifetime major depression in men and women [published correction appears in Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(1):94–95] Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999 56 1 39 44 9892254 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our propensity analysis achieved a mean C statistic of 0.713, indicating a substantial degree of overlap in propensity scores between cases and controls.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
hedgedn = 155- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The DZ and MZ pairs discordant for a PDE in the year before our FF1 interview had covariate imbalance on 4 variables: a history of MD, neuroticism, self-esteem, and SLEs for DZ pairs and neuroticism, self-esteem, marital quality, and SLEs for MZ pairs.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
plaincorrelationaln = 132- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we were successful in obtaining matched controls for a mean of 160.3 of 162 cases.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
plainn = 162- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“We created 10 imputed data sets for analysis, and the results were combined with estimates and standard errors calculated as described by Rubin51 and Li et al.52”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > METHODS > STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rubin51
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked yetcites Li et al. [52] Li KH Raghunathan TE Rubin DB Large-sample significance levels from multiply imputed data using moment-based statistics and an F-reference distribution J Am Stat Assoc 1991 86 416 1065 1073
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Confidence intervals and P values are based on profile likelihoods.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > METHODS > STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For environmental exposures in psychiatry that cannot be studied experimentally, co-twin control and propensity scoring methods—which have complementary strengths and weaknesses—can provide similar results, suggesting their joint use can help with the critical question of causal inference.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Conclusions
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Twin pairs raised together are matched for their rearing environment and their genes (partly for dizygotic and completely for monozygotic pairs) although not for environmental experiences unique to each twin.
In the paper
“Using the Spearman correlation (rs) and weighted kappa (κ),31 we determined the test-retest and interrater reliabilities to be rs=0.77/κ=0.63 and rs=0.89/κ=0.79, respectively.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > METHODS > MEASUREMENTS
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] Fleiss JS Cohen J Everett BS Large sample standard errors of kappa and weighted kappa Psychol Bull 1969 72 323 327
plainn = 191- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because of clear a priori expectations that dSLEs and PDEs should increase the risk for MD, we present 1-tailed P values and 90% confidence intervals (CIs).”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > METHODS > STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We repeated all analyses in our matched samples using conditional logistic regression and found very similar results.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > METHODS > STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, we obtained, on average across our 10 iterations, matched controls for 170.2 of the 184 cases, with no covariate imbalance between the 2 groups.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
plainn = 184- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As articulated by the counterfactual/interventionist theories of causation,13–15 if the association is causal, reducing risk factor exposure will reduce rates of disease. If the association is noncausal, altering risk factor exposure will not affect illness rates.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Kendler KS Campbell J Interventionist causal models in psychiatry: repositioning the mind-body problem Psychol Med 2009 39 6 881 887 18845010 source
- Not checked yetcites [14] Woodward J Making Things Happen 2003 New York, NY Oxford University Press
- Not checked yetcites [15] Pearl J Causality Models, Reasoning, and Inference 2000 Cambridge, England Cambridge University Press
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Because numerous risk factors for MD—including genes and childhood adversities—have long-lasting effects,11,12,22,23 the tendency for MD to recur could arise without one depressive episode having a causal effect on the next.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > Abstract > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [11] Kendler KS Gardner CO Prescott CA Toward a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in women Am J Psychiatry 2002 159 7 1133 1145 12091191 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [12] Kendler KS Gardner CO Prescott CA Toward a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in men Am J Psychiatry 2006 163 1 115 124 16390898 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [22] Kendler KS Neale MC Kessler RC Heath AC Eaves LJ A longitudinal twin study of 1-year prevalence of major depression in women Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993 50 11 843 852 8215810 source
- Not checked yetcites [23] Fergusson DM Mullen PE Childhood Sexual Abuse: An Evidence Based Perspective 1999 Thousand Oaks, CA Sage Publications Inc
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The congruence of these findings substantially increases the probability of their veracity.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our propensity method worked well in obtaining matched controls for our exposed cases and produced ORs that were modest and similar in male and female twins (1.6–1.7).”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both sexes, these 2 methods have produced broadly similar results showing a moderate causal impact of dSLEs on risk for MD.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, the co-twin control and propensity analyses assess the impact of a risk factor given the background exposures of the study population.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although this is not realistic for any behavioral outcome, our longitudinal twin cohort has a particularly rich set of depression-related risk factors.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the observed associations were largely noncausal, a moderate causal effect of dSLEs on MD was convincingly demonstrated, whereas the causal impact of PDEs was somewhat weaker and more tentative.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > CONCLUSIONS
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“This interpretation is consistent with previous analyses in this11,12 and other10 samples in which, in the presence of many covariates, PDEs modestly predict risk for future depressive episodes.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [11] Kendler KS Gardner CO Prescott CA Toward a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in women Am J Psychiatry 2002 159 7 1133 1145 12091191 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [12] Kendler KS Gardner CO Prescott CA Toward a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in men Am J Psychiatry 2006 163 1 115 124 16390898 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] Sjöholm L Lavebratt C Forsell Y A multifactorial developmental model for the etiology of major depression in a population-based sample J Affect Disord 2009 113 1–2 66 76 18558436 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The co-twin control method provides excellent matching for all shared environmental exposures and, for MZ twins, all genes.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The co-twin control and propensity analyses each suggest that dSLEs have a moderate true causal effect on the risk for MD.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our propensity method worked as expected in obtaining controls well matched to our cases.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of interest, MZ twin pairs discordant for dSLE exposure were very similar on our covariates, differing in male and female twins only in marital quality.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Low power may contribute to the lack of more definitive findings.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If a risk factor is causally potent only in the presence of an uncommon background factor, it will typically produce a weak overall effect.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If we knew of and measured all the relevant factors that influence risk exposure, the propensity method would provide accurate and unbiased estimates of causal effects.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In our detailed set of covariates, those exposed to dSLEs (cases) frequently differed from those who were unexposed (controls), immediately raising concern that the association between dSLEs and subsequent depressive episodes may not be entirely causal and may instead be at least partly mediated via these covariates along paths a and b in Figure 1.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Clarifying causal processes is problematic in psychiatric epidemiology, in which controlled trials are often impossible.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Our confidence in scientific results should increase when similar answers are obtained by different methods, especially when these 2 methods have different strengths and weaknesses, for example, in the congruent evidence of genetic influences on schizophrenia from twin and adoption studies.53”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [53] Kendler KS Diehl SR The genetics of schizophrenia: a current, genetic-epidemiologic perspective Schizophr Bull 1993 19 2 261 285 8322035 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If covariates that influence risk factor exposure and outcome are left out of propensity matching, this could also result in an overestimation of causal effects.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Dependent SLEs are, at least in part, exogenous risk factors that proved relatively easy to control for, as demonstrated by the very low rate of covariate imbalance in our discordant MZ twins.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > COMMENT > STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CO-TWIN CONTROL AND PROPENSITY MATCHING METHODS FOR CAUSAL INFERENCE
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Twin pairs raised together are matched for their rearing environment and their genes (partly for dizygotic and completely for monozygotic pairs) although not for environmental experiences unique to each twin.
“Twin pairs raised together are matched for their rearing environment and their genes (partly for dizygotic [DZ] and completely for monozygotic [MZ] pairs) although not for environmental experiences unique to each twin.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A double-blind study to clarify the causal relationship of SLEs or PDEs with MD would not be feasible or ethical.
“A double-blind study to clarify the causal relationship of either of these exposures with MD would not be feasible or ethical.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The risk factor and outcome variables for PDEs are the same (both are episodes of MD) and should share most predictors.
“Given these results and the fact that the risk factor and outcome variables were the same (ie, both are episodes of MD) and should share most predictors, the a priori probability that the observed association might be substantially noncausal is particularly high.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Covariates used in propensity matching must be causes and not consequences of risk factor exposure.
“Covariates have to be causes and not consequences of risk factor exposure.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Findings from several genetically informative studies have indicated that the associations between SLEs and depression in part reflect the causal influence of exposure on depression risk (Kendler et al., 1999a; Kendler & Aggen, 2014; Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
From Stressful life events increase the risk of major depressive episodes: A population-based twin study (2023) · cites this paper as Kendler & Gardner, 2010
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Although the co-twin control design increases control over genetic and shared environmental confounders, it is unable to control for non-shared confounders that only affect one twin, which can bias estimated effects (Frisell et al., 2012; Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
From Stressful life events increase the risk of major depressive episodes: A population-based twin study (2023) · cites this paper as Kendler & Gardner, 2010
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > dSLEs AS A CAUSAL RISK FACTOR FOR AN MD EPISODE
“Of these, 496 were exposed to a dSLE in the year before the MM1 interview.”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > METHODS > MEASUREMENTS
“We assessed the occurrence, to the nearest month during the year before the MM2 interview, of 11 classes of personal and 4 classes of network events.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > RESULTS > PDEs AS CAUSAL RISK FACTORS FOR SUBSEQUENT DEPRESSIVE EPISODES
“In that sample, exposure to a PDE was strongly associated with the occurrence of 1 or more PDE onsets in the year before the FF4 interview (OR, 3.68; 90% CI, 2.66–5.04; P<.001).”
§ Dependent Stressful Life Events and Prior Depressive Episodes in the Prediction of Major Depression > METHODS > MEASUREMENTS
“To evaluate the relationship between PDE and risk for a subsequent depressive episode, MD episodes reported at the MM1 and FF1 interviews were used as risk factors, and those reported at the MM2 and FF2 interviews were used as the outcomes.”
Citations
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THE EFFECTS OF STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS ON DEPRESSION
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“These variables (and, where available, the original scales and publications showing their association with MD) were (1) birth year, (2) mean parental warmth measured by the Parental Bonding Instrument,(33,34) (3) childhood sexual abuse,(35,36) (4) parental loss due to death or divorce in childhood,(37) (5) neuroticism…”
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- [14]Woodward J Making Things Happen 2003 New York, NY Oxford University Press
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Keyes, K. M., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Hasin, D. S. (2011) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2236-1 · Cited by 524
“Propensity analysis aims to mitigate the problem of reverse causation by carefully controlling confounding; these analyses have been applied to depression outcomes (Kendler and Gardner 2010), but have not yet been applied to alcohol outcomes.”
MethodBromberger, J. T., Kravitz, H. M., Chang, Y., Cyranowski, J. M., Brown, C., & Matthews, K. A. (2011) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329171100016x · Cited by 464
“Both factors are known to be consistently related to major depression (Kendler & Gardner, 2010) but prior studies of menopause have not assessed their importance relative to the menopausal transition.”
BackgroundUsing genetic data to strengthen causal inference in observational research
Pingault, J.-B., O’Reilly, P. F., Schoeler, T., Ploubidis, G. B., Rijsdijk, F., & Dudbridge, F. (2018) · Nature Reviews Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41576-018-0020-3 · Cited by 444
Pryce, C. R., Azzinnari, D., Spinelli, S., Seifritz, E., Tegethoff, M., & Meinlschmidt, G. (2011) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2011.06.006 · Cited by 259
Brain-gut-microbiota axis: challenges for translation in psychiatry
Kelly, J. R., Clarke, G. A., Cryan, J. F., & Dinan, T. G. (2016) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2016.02.008 · Cited by 207
Personality and Psychopathology: A Stagnant Field in Need of Development
Durbin, C. E., & Hicks, B. M. (2014) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.1962 · Cited by 173
“It is now clear that stressful life events causally impact depression (Kendler & Gardner, 2010), that depression causes exposure and reactivity to stressful life events (Hammen & Brennan, 2001; Uliaszek et al., 2012), and that the link between occurrence of stress and onset of depression changes…”
BackgroundJaffee, S. R., Strait, L., & Odgers, C. L. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0026020 · Cited by 185
“For example, a recent article examined the relationship among stressful life events, prior depressive episodes, and major depressive disorder (MDD) in a sample of adult twins (Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
Kendler, K. S., & Gardner, C. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291716000349 · Cited by 171
“Fifth, while SLEs have a relatively clear causal association with depressive onsets (Kendler et al. 1999; van Praag, 2004; Kendler & Gardner, 2010), a reverse causal path needs to be considered.”
BackgroundSelf-citationReduced default mode network suppression during a working memory task in remitted major depression
Bartova, L., Meyer, B. M., Diers, K., Rabl, U., Scharinger, C., Popovic, A., Pail, G., Kalcher, K., Boubela, R. N., Huemer, J., et al. (2015) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.02.025 · Cited by 135
“…rMDD is of significant clinical interest since it often represents a euthymic state with increased relapse risk (Bhagwagar and Cowen, 2008; Kendler and Gardner, 2010) and, together with information on the number of previous MDEs, guides clinical recommendations for antidepressant…”
BackgroundThe impact of resilience and subsequent stressful life events on MDD and GAD
Sheerin, C. M., Lind, M. J., Brown, E. A., Gardner, C. O., Kendler, K. S., & Amstadter, A. B. (2017) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22700 · Cited by 147
Self-citationLehmann, M. L., Weigel, T. K., Poffenberger, C. N., & Herkenham, M. (2019) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0184-19.2019 · Cited by 138
“, 2010) for modeling the relationship in humans between stressful life events and the development of anxiety and depression (Kendler and Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundThibodeau, M. A., Welch, P. G., Sareen, J., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2013) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22203 · Cited by 138
“[18, 19] Propensity score matching is prominent in medical epidemiology;[20] however, this technique is applied sparingly in mental health literature, despite researchers advocating its use in the area.[21] We explore independent associations between specific anxiety disorders and suicide ideation and suicide attempts…”
BackgroundApplying Causal Inference Methods in Psychiatric Epidemiology
Ohlsson, H., & Kendler, K. S. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3758 · Cited by 139
Self-citationThe Structure of Psychiatric Science
Kendler, K. S. (2014) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13111539 · Cited by 117
“statistical methods—such as propensity matching (8, 9, 10).”
MethodSelf-citationAccounting for Confounding in Observational Studies
D'Onofrio, B. M., Sjölander, A., Lahey, B. B., Lichtenstein, P., & Öberg, A. S. (2020) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045030 · Cited by 112
Hamaker, E. L., Mulder, J. D., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2020) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100867 · Cited by 133
“quasi-experimental method such as propensity score matching makes the causal claim more plausible (Kendler and Gardner, 2010; Ohlsson and Kendler, 2020).”
Liu, S., Xu, S., Wang, Z., Guo, Y., Pan, W., & Shen, Z. (2018) · Medical Science Monitor · doi:10.12659/msm.908422 · Cited by 92
“The latest WHO statistics show a global prevalence of about 11% and predict that depression will be the second-leading medical disorder in the world by 2020 [1].”
BackgroundChronic psychosocial stressors in adulthood: Studies in mice, rats and tree shrews
Pryce, C. R., & Fuchs, E. (2016) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2016.10.001 · Cited by 94
“In addition to adverse life events during development, those occurring across adulthood are also associated with increased vulnerability to and the triggering of MDD (Brown et al., 1995; Kendler and Gardner, 2010; Kendler et al., 1999; Kendler et al., 2002; Paykel, 2001).”
Role of Inflammation in Depression: Implications for Phenomenology, Pathophysiology and Treatment
Raison, C. L., & Miller, A. H. (2013) · Modern Trends in Psychiatry · doi:10.1159/000343966 · Cited by 88
Antecedents of New-Onset Major Depressive Disorder in Children and Adolescents at High Familial Risk
Rice, F. J., Sellers, R., Hammerton, G., Eyre, O., Jones, R. B., Thapar, A. K., Collishaw, S., Harold, G. T., & Thapar, A. (2016) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.3140 · Cited by 94
“However, it seems unlikely that children evoke economic adversity, and evidence suggests causal effects of psychosocial adversity on MDD when accounting for inherited influences on environmental exposure.(76)Fourth, aswouldbeexpected, therewere fewboys withMDD in the sample, meaning that wewere unable to assess sex di…”
BackgroundGreen, S., Lambon Ralph, M. A., Moll, J., Deakin, J. F. W., & Zahn, R. (2012) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2012.135 · Cited by 98
Depression and stressful environments: identifying gaps in conceptualization and measurement
Hammen, C. L. (2016) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2015.1134788 · Cited by 90
“%) of episodes of major depression occur within a few months or less of major negative life events, with empirical evidence of stressors playing a triggering/causal role (e.g. Brown & Harris, 1989; Kendler & Gardner, 2010; Kendler, Karkowski, & Prescott, 1999).”
BackgroundHassanzadeh, A., Heidari, Z., Feizi, A., Keshteli, A. H., Roohafza, H., Afshar, H., & Adibi, P. (2017) · Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine · doi:10.1155/2017/3457103 · Cited by 73
Cathomas, F., Azzinnari, D., Bergamini, G., Sigrist, H., Buerge, M., Hoop, V., Wicki, B., Goetze, L., Soares, S., Kukelova, D., et al. (2019) · Genes, Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12475 · Cited by 78
“Chronic psychosocial stress is a major etiological factor for some neuropsychiatric disorders including depression.(1,2) This “environmental pathogen”(3) is likely to impact on periphery and brain via various pathways, ultimately to induce changes in gene and protein expression.”
Lee, Y.-J., Kim, H. R., Lee, C. Y., Hyun, S., Ko, M. Y., Lee, B., Hwang, D. Y., & Ka, M. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21239103 · Cited by 74
“Chronic stress is an important risk factor for the development of major depression [2], and stress-induced dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is involved in the pathogenesis of depression [3,4].”
BackgroundForsman, M., & Långström, N. (2012) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291711003060 · Cited by 75
“…have been difficult to draw because few studies have used adequate controls to handle genetic and environmental confounding of any association between child victimization and later violent behaviour (see Freyd et al. 2005 ; McMillan et al. 2008 ; Kendler & Gardner, 2010 for discussions).”
BackgroundFenton, E. Y., Fournier, N. M., Lussier, A. L., Romay-Tallon, R., Caruncho, H. J., & Kalynchuk, L. E. (2015) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.02.001 · Cited by 69
“Chronic stress is an important risk factor for the development of major depression (e.g., Kendler and Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundJaffee, S. R., & Price, T. S. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412000685 · Cited by 67
“1253 significant others (or other stressful life events), calling into question the direction of the effect (Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundBromberger, J. T., Kravitz, H. M., Youk, A. O., Schott, L. L., & Joffe, H. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.07.005 · Cited by 65
Mind and body: how the health of the body impacts on neuropsychiatry
Renoir, T., Hasebe, K., & Gray, L. J. (2013) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2013.00158 · Cited by 65
“Despite substantial limitations in the objective assessment of stress, multiple studies have documented an association between stressful life experiences and depression (Kendler and Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundGoldstein, B. L., Kessel, E. M., Kujawa, A., Finsaas, M. C., Davila, J., Hajcak, G., & Klein, D. N. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719001557 · Cited by 62
“However, the causal role of independent events is clearer, as dependent events may result from prior predispositions or symptoms that account for their relationship with depression (Kendler et al., 1999; Hammen, 2006; Kercher et al., 2009; Kendler and Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialBarker, E. D. (2012) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291712002450 · Cited by 59
“With regard to stress, Hammen (1991, 2006) distinguished DIS, such as relationship disputes or low social support (Kendler & Gardner, 2010), from more independent contextual risks (e.g. poverty, crime), in that depressed persons can generate and increase DIS whereas rates of contextual risks are…”
BackgroundAnalysis of cerebrovascular dysfunction caused by chronic social defeat in mice
Lehmann, M. L., Poffenberger, C. N., Elkahloun, A. G., & Herkenham, M. A. (2020) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.030 · Cited by 49
“These disorders have a complex multifactorial etiology that includes social risk factors such as psychosocial stress (Kendler and Gardner, 2010; Keyes et al., 2011; Rice et al., 2017).”
Brymer, K. J., Fenton, E. Y., Kalynchuk, L. E., & Caruncho, H. J. (2018) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.00121 · Cited by 53
Parkinson, J. T., Foley, É. M., Jadon, D. R., & Khandaker, G. M. (2020) · Therapeutic Advances in Musculoskeletal Disease · doi:10.1177/1759720x20970028 · Cited by 52
Austin, K., Hunter, M., Gallagher, E., & Campbell, L. (2018) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12478 · Cited by 46
Fassett-Carman, A. N., Hankin, B. L., & Snyder, H. R. (2018) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2018.1532504 · Cited by 50
“…was associated with anxiety disorders, and perceived loss-related stress was associated with depression (Sandin, Chorot, Santed, & Valiente, 2004), as has been found using expert-rated measures (Asselmann, Wittchen, Lieb, Höfler, & Beesdo-Baum, 2015; Brown & Harris, 1978; Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundAnderson, L., Monden, C., & Bukodi, E. (2021) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465211055993 · Cited by 44
“Early case-control studies routinely found that around 80% of cases of depression were preceded by an SLE (Mazure 1998), and more sophisticated recent designs present strong evidence that SLEs exert a causal effect (Hammen 2005; Kendler and Gardner 2010; Kendler, Karkowski, and Prescott 1999).”
BackgroundPersonality Predicts Health Declines Through Stressful Life Events During Late Mid‐Life
McClendon, J., Bogdan, R., & Oltmanns, T. F. (2015) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12179 · Cited by 43
“Recent findings by Kendler and Gardner (2010) provided evidence for a causal relationship between dependent SLE and the onset of major depression by utilizing co-twin control and propensity score-matching methods (Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
dos Santos, E. R., Huang, H. Y., Menezes, P. R., & Scazufca, M. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0150046 · Cited by 43
Sensorimotor gating deficits in “two-hit” models of schizophrenia risk factors
Khan, A., & Powell, S. B. (2017) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2017.10.009 · Cited by 47
The road not taken: life experiences in monozygotic twin pairs discordant for major depression
Kendler, K. S., & Halberstadt, L. J. (2012) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2012.55 · Cited by 41
Self-citationTao, M., Li, Y., Xie, D., Wang, Z., Qiu, J., Wu, W., Sun, J., Wang, Z., Tao, D., Zhao, H., et al. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.06.054 · Cited by 41
“For example, an analysis of SLEs that the individual has contributed to producing, termed dependent SLEs, shows both causal and non-causal associations with MDD (Kendler and Gardner, 2010).”
MethodSelf-citationKendler, K. S., Ohlsson, H., Fagan, A. A., Lichtenstein, P., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2018) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.2337 · Cited by 41
Self-citationFassett-Carman, A. N., DiDomenico, G. E., von Steiger, J., & Snyder, H. R. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.053 · Cited by 46
The Co-Twin Control Design: Implementation and Methodological Considerations
Gonggrijp, B. M. A., van de Weijer, S. G. A., Bijleveld, C. C. J. H., van Dongen, J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2023) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2023.35 · Cited by 39
“For example, Kendler and Gardner (2010) analyzed data from 4910 female and male twins by CLR to investigate the association between dependent stressful life events and major depression (MD).”
MethodObstetric and psychosocial risk factors for depressive symptoms during pregnancy
Dudas, R. B., Csatordai, S., Devosa, I., Töreki, A., Andó, B., Barabás, K. N., Pál, A., & Kozinszky, Z. (2012) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.04.017 · Cited by 37
“effect in triggering antepartum depression is difficult and would require a very complex analysis (Kendler and Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialStressful life events increase the risk of major depressive episodes: A population-based twin study
Bjørndal, L. D., Kendler, K. S., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., & Ystrom, E. (2023) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722002227 · Cited by 35
“…co-twin analyses of the occurrence of all SLEs and violent SLEs are in accordance with previous genetically informative studies that have found that the association between dependent SLEs and depression risk is likely substantially causal in nature (Kendler et al., 1999a; Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationBody-image dissatisfaction is strongly associated with chronic dysphoria
Rosenström, T. H., Jokela, M. M., Hintsanen, M., Josefsson, K., Juonala, M., Mika Kivimaki, B., Pulkki-Råbäck, L., Viikari, J. S. A., Hutri‐Kähönen, N., Heinonen, E. O., et al. (2013) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.04.003 · Cited by 36
“, 1999), large part of the association is non-causal (Kendler and Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundBromberger, J., Schott, L. L., Matthews, K., Kravitz, H., Harlow, S., & Montez, J. (2017) · Archives of Women's Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-017-0747-4 · Cited by 23
“Recurrent or persistent depressive mood is more likely to be associated with decrements in quality of life and functioning than is a single episode (Bromberger et al. 2011; Kendler and Gardner 2010).”
BackgroundSelous, C., Kelly-Irving, M., Maughan, B., Eyre, O., Rice, F., & Collishaw, S. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329171900271x · Cited by 34
Rice, F. J., Lewis, G., Harold, G. T., & Thapar, A. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412000880 · Cited by 35
“In adults, recent evidence using a discordant identical twin design and propensity-score matching methods suggests, however, that dependent life events have modest causal environmental risk effects on depression when genetic factors are taken into account (Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialClassification issues and challenges in child and adolescent psychopathology
Rutter, M., & Uher, R. (2012) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/09540261.2012.719862 · Cited by 31
“A range of well-conducted studies showed that, rather contrary to most people ’ s expectations, stress-related disorders did not differ from other disorders with comparable clinical features (Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
ResultTrimmer, P. C., Higginson, A. D., Fawcett, T. W., McNamara, J. M., & Houston, A. I. (2015) · Evolution Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1093/emph/eov009 · Cited by 33
“Kendler KS, Gardner CO. Dependent stressful life events and prior depressive episodes in the prediction of major depression: the problem of causal inference in psychiatric epidemiology.”
ResultSexually Coercive Behavior Following Childhood Maltreatment
Forsman, M., Johansson, A., Santtila, P. O., Sandnabba, K. N., & Långström, N. (2014) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0296-0 · Cited by 33
Major life events and development of major depression in P arkinson's disease patients
Rod, N. H., Bordelon, Y. M., Thompson, A. W., Marcotte, E., & Ritz, B. R. (2012) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.12019 · Cited by 30
“In support of a causal role, Kendler and colleagues have found a moderate causal effect of stressful life events on the risk of major depression in detailed analyses including a co-twin control design and propensity score matching [29].”
BackgroundSokratous, S., Alexandrou, G., Zavrou, R., & Karanikola, M. N. K. (2023) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-023-01463-x · Cited by 35
“Mental health problems, such as depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and suicidal ideation, are usually reported by people exposed to stressful life events [8, 9].”
BackgroundHigher cognitive ability buffers stress-related depressive symptoms in adolescent girls
Riglin, L., Collishaw, S., Shelton, K. H., McManus, I. C., Ng‐Knight, T., Sellers, R., Thapar, A. K., Frederickson, N. L., & Rice, F. J. (2015) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579415000310 · Cited by 30
“Stressful life events exert a modest causal effect on the risk for major depressive disorder even when accounting for person effects on the environment (Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundDiethylstilbestrol and risk of psychiatric disorders: A critical review and new insights
Kébir, O., & Krebs, M. (2011) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/15622975.2011.560280 · Cited by 28
“Conversely, epidemiological studies have identifi ed several environmental factors that increase the risk of disease in people exposed to them (Kelly et al. 2010; Kendler and Gardner 2010).”
BackgroundBrandel, M. G., Hirshman, B. R., McCutcheon, B. A., Tringale, K. R., Carroll, K. T., Richtand, N. M., Perry, W., Chen, C. C., & Carter, B. S. (2016) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2016.4504 · Cited by 27
“33,34 Therefore, It is possible that confounding factors are responsible for our findings.”
Clarke, T., Zeng, Y., Navrady, L. B., Xia, C., Haley, C., Campbell, A. I., Navarro, P., Amador, C., Adams, M. J., Howard, D. M., et al. (2019) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.13893.2 · Cited by 26
Causal Inference in Psychiatric Epidemiology
Kendler, K. S. (2017) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0502 · Cited by 24
Self-citationEffects of duration and intensity of psychological stressors on mental health outcomes
Malykhin, N. V., Serrano, J., Pietrasik, W., & Hegadoren, K. (2025) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2025.05.012 · Cited by 21
Do reasons for major depression act as causes?
Kendler, K. S., Myers, J. R., & Halberstadt, L. J. (2011) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2011.22 · Cited by 22
Self-citationThe Intergenerational Transmission of Anxiety Disorders and Major Depression
Rice, F. J. (2022) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20220570 · Cited by 22
“Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2010; 67(11):1120-7.”
King, A. P. J., Abelson, J. L., Gholami, B., Upchurch, G. R., Henke, P. K., Graham, L. M., & Liberzon, I. (2015) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000235 · Cited by 19
“Smoker current, n (%) 21 (35) 1 (5) 16 (23) .”
Þórarinsdóttir, H., Faurholt‐Jepsen, M., Ullum, H., Frost, M. M., Bardram, J. E., & Kessing, L. V. (2019) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/13418 · Cited by 22
Dong, H., Cong, W., Guo, X.-W., Wang, Y., Tong, S., Li, Q., & Li, C. (2019) · Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine · doi:10.3892/etm.2019.8018 · Cited by 18
RetractedSocial Determinants of Inter-Individual Variability and Vulnerability: The Role of Dopamine
Fauré, P., Fayad, S. L., Solié, C., & Reynolds, L. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2022.836343 · Cited by 17
Thapar, A., & Rutter, M. L. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118381953.ch12 · Cited by 18
Lannoy, S., Ohlsson, H., Kendler, K. S., Sundquist, J., Sundquist, K., & Edwards, A. C. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.03.004 · Cited by 17
Self-citationTiming of housing crises: Impacts on maternal depression
Marçal, K. E. (2017) · Social Work in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/15332985.2017.1385565 · Cited by 17
“Most depressive episodes follow major negative life events such as divorce, death of a friend or family member, or job loss (Hammen, 2016), and some research suggests this link is causal (Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundBargaining models of depression and evolution of cooperation
Rosenström, T. H. (2013) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2013.04.012 · Cited by 16
“The causal effect of stressful life events dependent on a person’s own behavior, which are more strongly associated with depressive episodes than most other types of stressful life events, has been found modest, however (Kendler and Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundBehavior genetics: Past, present, future
Jaffee, S. R., Price, T. S., & Reyes, T. M. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579413000588 · Cited by 17
Florence, C., Leray, E., Bodeau‐Livinec, F., Husky, M. M., & Kovess–Masféty, V. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.04.039 · Cited by 20
“First, the current explanatory model of depression is multifactorial (Kendler and Gardner, 2010; Zimmermann et al., 2011).”
Allen, T. A., Dombrovski, A. Y., Soloff, P. H., & Hallquist, M. N. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329172000255x · Cited by 17
“For instance, stress reactivity is associated with the emergence and severity of psychopathology (Kendler & Gardner, 2010; McLaughlin et al., 2012).”
BackgroundTrajectories of depressive symptoms in response to prolonged stress in medical interns
Guille, C., Clark, S. L., Amstadter, A. B., & Sen, S. (2013) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12137 · Cited by 15
“This approach tends to obscure interindividual heterogeneity and cannot identify distinct trajectories of depressive symptoms under stress (9).”
BackgroundKuhlman, I., Tolvanen, A. J., & Seikkula, J. (2013) · Contemporary Family Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10591-013-9246-6 · Cited by 15
Clarke, T.-K., Zeng, Y., Navrady, L., Xia, C., Haley, C., Campbell, A., Navarro, P., Amador, C., Adams, M. J., Howard, D. M., et al. (2018) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.13893.1 · Cited by 16
Zeng, J., & Xu, Y. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.04.010 · Cited by 14
Rutter, M. L. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9608-3_3 · Cited by 13
Riga, D., Schmitz, L. J. M., van Mourik, Y., Hoogendijk, W. J. G., Vries, T. J. D., Smit, A. B., & Spijker, S. (2018) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12701 · Cited by 12
Goldstein, B. L., Armeli, S., Adams, R. L., Florimon, M. A., Hammen, C. L., & Tennen, H. A. (2021) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2021.1910677 · Cited by 14
“Independent events have been found to predict depression (Kendler & Gardner, 2010).”
BackgroundAlò, R., Mele, M., Fazzari, G., Avolio, E., & Canonaco, M. (2015) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2015.09.007 · Cited by 12
de Vries, Y. A., Bos, E. H., Roest, A. M., & de Jonge, P. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42825-9_89-1 · Cited by 12
(VICS), F. T. V. I. C. S., León‐Pérez, G., Wallston, K. A., Goggins, K. M., Poppendeck, H., & Kripalani, S. B. (2015) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-015-9702-x · Cited by 11
“Indeed, there is ample and compelling evidence for the association between stressful life events and depression (Caspi et al. 2003; Hammen 2005; Kendler and Gardner 2010; Kessler 1997; Mazure 1998).”
Zhu, X., Geng, Y., Sai, X., Yang, M., Toh, C.-W., Zhan, T., Yu, J., & Shi, L. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00409-4 · Cited by 11
Olivares, E. L., Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., & Gillespie, N. A. (2016) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2016.52 · Cited by 11
“These include propensity analyses (Kendler & Gardner, 2010), cross-panel designs, or modeling direction of causation based on pairs of genetically informative relatives measured on a single occasion (Heath et al., 1993).”
Self-citationNature of the Causal Relationship Between Academic Achievement and the Risk for Alcohol Use Disorder
Kendler, K. S., Ohlsson, H., Fagan, A. A., Lichtenstein, P., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2020) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs · doi:10.15288/jsad.2020.81.446 · Cited by 10
“However, confidence in results can be increased through multiple inferential methods (Kendler & Gardner, 2010), recently termed triangulation (Munafò & Davey Smith, 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPasman, J. A., Bergstedt, J., Harder, A., Gong, T., Xiong, Y., Hägg, S., Fang, F., Treur, J. L., Choi, K. W., Sullivan, P. F., et al. (2025) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-025-00471-x · Cited by 16
Campbell, K. E., Gorelik, A., Szoeke, C. E. I., & Dennerstein, L. (2020) · Women s Midlife Health · doi:10.1186/s40695-020-00050-3 · Cited by 10
Kendler, K. S., Lönn, S. L., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2023) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291723000570 · Cited by 10
“A substantial proportion of this association appears to be causal (Kendler & Gardner, 2010a; Kendler, Karkowski, & Prescott, 1999).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWarne, N., Collishaw, S., & Rice, F. J. (2018) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2018.1508591 · Cited by 12
Salari, M., Mehrjerdi, F. Z., Yadegari, M., Rezvani, M. E., & Raeini, A. S. (2023) · Naunyn-Schmiedeberg s Archives of Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00210-023-02405-9 · Cited by 9
“The World Health Organization (WHO) has reported an 11% prevalence of this disorder worldwide (Kendler and Gardner 2010).”
BackgroundChronic Social Defeat Stress Gives Rise to Social Avoidance Through Fear Learning
Lee, J., Aubry, A., Hanif, S., Grunfeld, I. S., Likhtik, E., & Burghardt, N. S. (2024) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2024.115245 · Cited by 9
The touchscreen operant platform for assessing cognitive functions in a rat model of depression
Tran, T. P., Christensen, H. L., Bertelsen, F., Bouzinova, E. V., Møller, A., & Wiborg, O. (2016) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.03.032 · Cited by 9
Evidence for a Causal Relationship Between Academic Achievement and Cigarette Smoking
Kendler, K. S., Ohlsson, H., Fagan, A. A., Lichtenstein, P., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2020) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntaa161 · Cited by 9
Self-citationGenetic Influences on Depression and Anxiety in Childhood and Adolescence
Rice, F. J. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9509-3_3 · Cited by 9
Losada, A. F., Wei, Y. B., Åberg, E., Sjöholm, L. K., Lavebratt, C., & Forsell, Y. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.06.034 · Cited by 9
“A moderate degree of causality for dependent SLEs (SLEs likely influenced by the individual’s behaviour) and previous depression episodes onto depression was demonstrated, although a large proportion of observed associations are non-causal (Kendler and Gardner, 2010).”
Parents and Genes and Their Effects on Alcohol, Drugs, and Crime in Triparental Families
Thapar, A. (2015) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15020263 · Cited by 8
Metadata
- Authors
- Kendler, K. S., & Gardner, C. O.
- Affiliations
- Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
- ORCID
- Kendler, Kenneth S.
- Venue
- Archives of General Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2010-11-01
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1120
- ISSN
- 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3081880
- OpenAlex
- W2045667549
- Semantic Scholar
- dab89f6651d38065df4ad8a91faa4ac2eb753315
- Cited by
- 156
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 13.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (DA-011287, MH‐068643)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01 MH049492, MH-49492, MH-068643, R01 MH068643)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01 DA011287, DA011287)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, life events, environmental risk factors, causal inference, co-twin control, propensity score matching, monozygotic twins, sex differences, natural experiment
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Data Collection, Depressive Disorder, Major, Major Depressive Disorder, Diseases in Twins, Female, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Social Environment, Twins, Dizygotic, Twins, Monozygotic, Causality, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Propensity Score
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-20, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-20 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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