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Cited by 583Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on BehaviorMemory and Neural MechanismsNicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors Study

Treating Drug Abuse and Addiction in the Criminal Justice System: Improving Public Health and Safety

Open access
Chandler, Redonna K., Fletcher, Bennett W., Volkow, Nora D.·2009·JAMA
DOI 10.1001/jama.2008.976PMC PMC2681083
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Abstract

Despite increasing evidence that addiction is a treatable disease of the brain, most individuals do not receive treatment. Involvement in the criminal justice system often results from illegal drug-seeking behavior and participation in illegal activities that reflect, in part, disrupted behavior ensuing from brain changes triggered by repeated drug use. Treating drug-involved offenders provides a unique opportunity to decrease substance abuse and reduce associated criminal behavior. Emerging neuroscience has the potential to transform traditional sanction-oriented public safety approaches by providing new therapeutic strategies against addiction that could be used in the criminal justice system. We summarize relevant neuroscientific findings and evidence-based principles of addiction treatment that, if implemented in the criminal justice system, could help improve public heath and reduce criminal behavior.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1001/jama.2008.976

Cites

85 of 85 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 68 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Roughly half of all prisoners meet criteria for drug abuse or dependence.

    “An estimated one-half of all prisoners (including some sentenced for other than drug offenses) meet the criteria for diagnosis of drug abuse or dependence (Table 1).3,4”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Most prisoners who could benefit from drug abuse treatment (80%-85%) do not receive it.

    “most prisoners (80%–85%) who could benefit from drug abuse treatment do not receive it.3,4”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [4]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Drug-using offenders face high risk of infectious diseases such as HIV and hepatitis C.

    “drug-using offenders are at high risk for infectious diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C5”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Tougher laws and penalties for drug offenses partly explain the growth in the criminal justice population.

    “The large increase in the criminal justice population reflects in part tougher laws and penalties for drug offenses.2”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Drug-using offenders often have co-morbid psychiatric disorders.

    “frequently have co-morbid psychiatric disorders,6,7”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [6]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [7]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims. 14
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 6

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Drug court graduates have rearrest rates about half those of matched comparison samples and much lower than drug court dropouts.

    “Drug courts combine judicial supervision with drug treatment as an alternative to incarceration; their graduates have rearrest rates about half those of matched comparison samples and much lower than those of drug court dropouts.28”
    • Also stated in: § Drug Abuse Treatment Effectiveness in the Criminal Justice System · plain
      “their graduates have rearrest rates about half those of matched comparison samples and much lower than those of drug court dropouts.28”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Putting treatment into the criminal justice system would reach people who would otherwise go untreated, improving their medical outcomes and lowering reincarceration rates.

    “Integrating treatment into the criminal justice system would provide treatment to individuals who otherwise would not receive it, improving their medical outcomes and decreasing their rates of reincarceration.8”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: Only a small proportion of people who need drug addiction treatment seek it voluntarily.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    About 7.1 million adults in the US are under some form of criminal justice supervision.

    “approximately 7.1 million adults in the United States are under some form of criminal justice supervision.1”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Addiction is a chronic brain disease in which genetic factors are thought to account for 40% to 60% of vulnerability.

    “Addiction is a chronic brain disease for which genetic factors are believed to contribute 40% to 60% of the vulnerability.54”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Community-based drug abuse treatment can lower drug use and drug-related criminal behavior.

    “Research has consistently shown that community-based drug abuse treatment can reduce drug use and drug-related criminal behavior.26”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a recent survey, most correctional agencies offered some drug abuse treatment, but the median share of offenders with access at any time was low, usually under 10%.

    “most correctional agencies reported providing sometype of drug abuse treatment services;however, the median percentage of offenders who had access to those services at any given time was low, usually less than 10% (Table 2).42”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HIV and hepatitis C are linked to illicit drug use and are more common in correctional populations than in the general population.

    “Infectious diseases such as HIV and hepatitis C are associated with illicit drug use and occur at higher rates in correctional populations than in the general population,5”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The persistence of these changes helps explain high relapse risk in abstinent addicted individuals and supports viewing addiction as a chronic relapsing disease.

    “This helps explain why addicted individuals who have ceased drug use are at high risk of relapse and provides neurobiological support for the recognition of addiction as a chronic relapsing disease.72”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [72]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Conditioned drug cues automatically activate reward and motivational neurocircuitry and can trigger intense craving.

    “these conditioned cues automatically activate the reward/motivational neurocircuitry and can trigger an intense desire to consume drugs (craving).13”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Repeated drug use affects mood and anxiety brain regions, which may explain high comorbidity of addiction with dysphoria or depression and relapse vulnerability under social stress.

    “repeated drug use also affects brain regions implicated in mood and anxiety, which could explain the high rate of addiction comorbid with dysphoria, depression, or both and the vulnerability of the addicted person to relapse when exposed to social stressors.65,66”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [65]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [66]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Identifying the neurologic factors behind addictive behavior can put moral arguments into a more reasoned context.

    “Identifying the neurologic factors underlying addictive behavior can place these moral arguments into a more reasoned context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The persistence of neurologic deficits supports recognizing addiction as a chronic disease and needing the same continuity of care as other chronic diseases.

    “The persistence of neurologic deficits provides support for the recognition of addiction as a chronic disease and highlights the need for the same continuity of care so important in treatment of other chronic diseases (eg, asthma, hypertension).72”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [72]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Disruption of these circuits weakens the ability to inhibit intentional actions or control strong emotions and desires and makes adaptive decisions more difficult.

    “Disruption of these circuits impairs the addicted person’s ability to inhibit intentional actions or to control strong emotions and desires and also increases the likelihood that the individual will have difficulties making adaptive decisions.60,61”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [60]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [61]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    People who had prison-based treatment followed by a community program after release were 7 times more likely to be drug free and 3 times less likely to be arrested for criminal behavior than untreated people.

    “Individuals who participated in prison-based treatment followed by a community-based program postincarceration were 7 times more likely to be drug free and 3 times less likely to be arrested for criminal behavior than those not receiving treatment.29,30”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [29]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [30]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Methadone and buprenorphine, opiate agonist medications for heroin addiction, are underused in correctional populations.

    “Opiate agonist medications used for the treatment of heroin addiction such as methadone and buprenorphine are underused in correctional populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The growing number of drug-abusing offenders makes it urgent to provide treatment for criminal justice populations.

    “The increase in the number of drug-abusing offenders highlights the urgency to institute treatments for populations involved in the criminal justice system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Naltrexone is likely more acceptable in criminal justice settings than agonist medications.

    “Naltrexone is likely to be more acceptable in the criminal justice setting than agonist medications.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Punishment alone is futile and ineffective for drug abuse and fails as a public safety intervention for offenders whose crime is directly tied to drug use.

    “Punishment alone is a futile and ineffective response to drug abuse,2 failing as a public safety intervention for offenders whose criminal behavior is directly related to drug use.81”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [81]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: Incarceration has little evidence of reducing drug use or drug-related re-incarceration for nonviolent drug offenders.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Addiction is a chronic brain disease with a strong genetic component that usually requires treatment.

    “Addiction is a chronic brain disease with a strong genetic component that in most instances requires treatment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
19 of 19

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Incarceration has little evidence of reducing drug use or drug-related re-incarceration for nonviolent drug offenders.

    “there is little evidence that this strategy reduces drug use or drug-related re-incarceration rates for nonviolent drug offenders.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Addiction is still a stigmatized condition that the criminal justice system often does not treat as medical.

    “Addiction remains a stigmatized disease not often regarded by the criminal justice system as a medical condition”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Treatment for addiction is not constitutionally guaranteed in the way treatment for other medical conditions is.

    “as a consequence, treatment is not constitutionally guaranteed as is the treatment of other medical conditions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Integrating volunteer-led self-help groups into criminal justice settings has only nominal cost.

    “The cost of integrating volunteer-led self-help organizations such as Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous into criminal justice settings is nominal”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Only a small proportion of people who need drug addiction treatment seek it voluntarily.

    “Only a small percentage of those requiring treatment for drug addiction seek help voluntarily”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many barriers, including insufficient resources, infrastructure, and treatment staff, prevent meeting the drug treatment needs of drug-involved offenders.

    “There are many barriers to treatment for the drug-involved offender, including lack of the resources, infrastructure, and treatment staff (including physicians knowledgeable about addiction medicine) required to meet the drug treatment needs of individuals under their supervision.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Poor compliance with naltrexone has restricted its use for heroin addiction.

    “However, the poor compliance with naltrexone has limited its use in the treatment of heroin addiction.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are currently several ways to provide drug abuse treatment instead of incarceration.

    “Several avenues currently exist for providing drug abuse treatment as an alternative to incarceration.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The number of drug courts has grown to nearly 2000 since the first one in Miami in 1989.

    “from the first drug court established in Miami in 1989, drug courts have increased in number to nearly 2000 today.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Some states, including Arizona, California, and New York, have established treatment alternatives to incarceration for certain drug offenders.

    “States such as Arizona, California, and New York have created treatment alternatives to incarceration for first-time drug offenders, juvenile offenders, and others.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many states face political pressure to cut incarceration costs by diverting nonviolent drug offenders into treatment.

    “Many states are coming under political pressure to reduce the costs associated with incarceration by diverting nonviolent drug offenders to treatment.”
11 of 11

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Almost 85% of inmates who could benefit from treatment do not receive it within a US correctional facility.

    “Almost 85% of inmates who could benefit from treatment do not receive it within a US correctional facility (Chandler et al., 2009).”

    From Reducing criminal recidivism in Alaska: The Set Free Model (2023) · cites this paper as Chandler et al., 2009

  • A history of drug use or misuse is pervasive among prison inmates by every measure, including prior use, use at the time the offense is committed, drug abuse, and drug dependence.

    “A history of drug use or misuse is pervasive among prison inmates by every measure, including prior use, use at the time the offense is committed, drug abuse, and drug dependence [2-4].”

    From Return to drug use and overdose after release from prison: A qualitative study of risk and protective factors (2012) · cites this paper as [3]

  • Prisoners have limited access to evidence-based substance abuse treatment during incarceration, during the transition to the community, or while under community supervision.

    “Despite the magnitude of the problem of substance use disorders among criminal justice populations, prisoners have limited access to evidence-based substance abuse treatment during incarceration, during the transition to the community, or while under community supervision [3,5-7].”

    From Return to drug use and overdose after release from prison: A qualitative study of risk and protective factors (2012) · cites this paper as [3]

  • Opioid-agonist maintenance treatments have historically been unavailable or discouraged for criminal justice clients.

    “Evidence-based opioid-agonist maintenance therapies for opioid dependence (methadone and buprenorphine) are effective in prison, jail, and community reentry (i.e., parole) settings2–5 but have historically been unavailable or discouraged among criminal justice clients.6–8”

    From Extended-release naltrexone to prevent opioid relapse in criminal justice offenders (2016) · cites this paper as [7]

Cites

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7 of the 92 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Chandler, R. K., Fletcher, B. W., & Volkow, N. D.
Affiliations
National Institute on Drug Abuse (US)
Venue
JAMA
Publisher
American Medical Association (AMA)
Published
2009-01-14
Volume
301
Issue
2
Pages
183
ISSN
  • 0002-9955 (ISSN-L)
  • 0098-7484
DOI
10.1001/jama.2008.976
PMC
PMC2681083
OpenAlex
W2136084133
Cited by
583
References
92
Citations by year
2026: 18 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 29
FWCI
11.08
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • JAMA (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors Study
Keywords
drug addiction treatment, drug-involved offenders, criminal justice system, neurobiology of addiction, evidence-based treatment, criminal behavior, substance abuse
MeSH terms
Brain, Crime, Health Services Accessibility, Humans, Mental Health Services, Prisons, Public Health

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