The dopamine hypothesis of drug addiction and its potential therapeutic value
Open accessAbstract
Dopamine (DA) transmission is deeply affected by drugs of abuse, and alterations in DA function are involved in the various phases of drug addiction and potentially exploitable therapeutically. In particular, basic studies have documented a reduction in the electrophysiological activity of DA neurons in alcohol, opiate, cannabinoid, and other drug-dependent rats. Further, DA release in the Nucleus accumbens (Nacc) is decreased in virtually all drug-dependent rodents. In parallel, these studies are supported by increments in intracranial self stimulation (ICSS) thresholds during withdrawal from alcohol, nicotine, opiates, and other drugs of abuse, thereby suggesting a hypofunction of the neural substrate of ICSS. Accordingly, morphological evaluations fed into realistic computational analysis of the medium spiny neuron of the Nacc, post-synaptic counterpart of DA terminals, show profound changes in structure and function of the entire mesolimbic system. In line with these findings, human imaging studies have shown a reduction of dopamine receptors accompanied by a lesser release of endogenous DA in the ventral striatum of cocaine, heroin, and alcohol-dependent subjects, thereby offering visual proof of the "dopamine-impoverished" addicted human brain. The lasting reduction in physiological activity of the DA system leads to the idea that an increment in its activity, to restore pre-drug levels, may yield significant clinical improvements (reduction of craving, relapse, and drug-seeking/taking). In theory, it may be achieved pharmacologically and/or with novel interventions such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Its anatomo-physiological rationale as a possible therapeutic aid in alcoholics and other addicts will be described and proposed as a theoretical framework to be subjected to experimental testing in human addicts.
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In animal models, precipitated opioid withdrawal decreases extracellular dopamine levels in the NAc and mesolimbic dopamine system and decreases dopamine neuron firing in the VTA.
“In animal models, early studies showed that precipitated opioid withdrawal decreases extracellular dopamine levels in the NAc and mesolimbic dopamine system (Pothos et al., 1991;Rossetti et al., 1992) and decreases dopamine neuron firing in the VTA (Diana, 2011).”
From Drug Addiction: Hyperkatifeia/Negative Reinforcement as a Framework for Medications Development (2021) · cites this paper as Diana, 2011
In “Dopamine as a Possible Therapeutic Target” (page unavailable), the paper reports reduced dopamine-neuron activity after morphine withdrawal in rats. It does not specify that the opioid withdrawal was precipitated or explicitly locate that firing reduction in the VTA. The extracellular-dopamine portion of the citing sentence is attributed to other citations, not Diana (2011). (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSignificant hyperkatifeia is associated with psychostimulant, tobacco, and cannabinoid addiction.
“Significant hyperkatifeia is also associated with psychostimulant, tobacco, and cannabinoid addiction from the perspectives of phenotypes and neurocircuitry/neurotransmitter systems (Baker et al., 1987(Baker et al., , 2004;;Diana, 2011;Cook et al., 2015;Koob, 2015;Ashok et al., 2017).”
From Drug Addiction: Hyperkatifeia/Negative Reinforcement as a Framework for Medications Development (2021) · cites this paper as Diana, 2011
The Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation section (page unavailable) describes neural changes associated with psychostimulants and cannabis dependence, and Dopamine as a Possible Therapeutic Target (page unavailable) discusses dopaminergic changes after cannabinoid withdrawal. These passages support a neurocircuitry-related aspect of the claim, but they do not establish significant hyperkatifeia—a heightened negative emotional state—for psychostimulant, tobacco, and cannabinoid addiction. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe mesolimbic dopamine system becomes compromised after chronic administration of virtually all drugs of abuse, including opioids and alcohol.
“Nevertheless, what is also evident is that the mesolimbic dopamine system becomes compromised after the chronic administration of virtually all drugs of abuse, including opioids and alcohol (Koob and Volkow, 2010;Diana, 2011).”
From Drug Addiction: Hyperkatifeia/Negative Reinforcement as a Framework for Medications Development (2021) · cites this paper as Diana, 2011
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Neurobiology of opioid addiction: Opponent process, hyperkatifeia, and negative reinforcement
Koob, G. F. (2020) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.05.023 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
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The dopaminergic midbrain encodes the expected certainty about desired outcomes
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- Authors
- Diana, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Sassari (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Diana, Marco
- ORCID
- Diana, Marco
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 2
- Pages
- 64-64
- ISSN
- 1664-0640 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3225760
- OpenAlex
- W1972562670
- Cited by
- 251
- References
- 93
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 6.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UnissResearch (Università degli Studi di Sassari) (submittedVersion)
- UnissResearch (Università degli Studi di Sassari) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (2004052392)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Keywords
- drug addiction, dopamine signaling, nucleus accumbens, intracranial self-stimulation, withdrawal, medium spiny neurons, mesolimbic system, dopamine receptors, ventral striatum, alcoholism, opioid use disorder, cocaine dependence, transcranial magnetic stimulation, craving, relapse, drug-seeking behavior
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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