Pathophysiology, Transmission, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review
Open accessAbstract
IMPORTANCE: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, due to the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has caused a worldwide sudden and substantial increase in hospitalizations for pneumonia with multiorgan disease. This review discusses current evidence regarding the pathophysiology, transmission, diagnosis, and management of COVID-19. OBSERVATIONS: SARS-CoV-2 is spread primarily via respiratory droplets during close face-to-face contact. Infection can be spread by asymptomatic, presymptomatic, and symptomatic carriers. The average time from exposure to symptom onset is 5 days, and 97.5% of people who develop symptoms do so within 11.5 days. The most common symptoms are fever, dry cough, and shortness of breath. Radiographic and laboratory abnormalities, such as lymphopenia and elevated lactate dehydrogenase, are common, but nonspecific. Diagnosis is made by detection of SARS-CoV-2 via reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction testing, although false-negative test results may occur in up to 20% to 67% of patients; however, this is dependent on the quality and timing of testing. Manifestations of COVID-19 include asymptomatic carriers and fulminant disease characterized by sepsis and acute respiratory failure. Approximately 5% of patients with COVID-19, and 20% of those hospitalized, experience severe symptoms necessitating intensive care. More than 75% of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 require supplemental oxygen. Treatment for individuals with COVID-19 includes best practices for supportive management of acute hypoxic respiratory failure. Emerging data indicate that dexamethasone therapy reduces 28-day mortality in patients requiring supplemental oxygen compared with usual care (21.6% vs 24.6%; age-adjusted rate ratio, 0.83 [95% CI, 0.74-0.92]) and that remdesivir improves time to recovery (hospital discharge or no supplemental oxygen requirement) from 15 to 11 days. In a randomized trial of 103 patients with COVID-19, convalescent plasma did not shorten time to recovery. Ongoing trials are testing antiviral therapies, immune modulators, and anticoagulants. The case-fatality rate for COVID-19 varies markedly by age, ranging from 0.3 deaths per 1000 cases among patients aged 5 to 17 years to 304.9 deaths per 1000 cases among patients aged 85 years or older in the US. Among patients hospitalized in the intensive care unit, the case fatality is up to 40%. At least 120 SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are under development. Until an effective vaccine is available, the primary methods to reduce spread are face masks, social distancing, and contact tracing. Monoclonal antibodies and hyperimmune globulin may provide additional preventive strategies. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: As of July 1, 2020, more than 10 million people worldwide had been infected with SARS-CoV-2. Many aspects of transmission, infection, and treatment remain unclear. Advances in prevention and effective management of COVID-19 will require basic and clinical investigation and public health and clinical interventions.
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Alterations in Smell or Taste in Mildly Symptomatic Outpatients With SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Spinato, G., Fabbris, C., Polesel, J., Cazzador, D., Borsetto, D., Hopkins, C., & Boscolo-Rizzo, P. (2020) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2020.6771 · Cited by 698 · see citing works
Variation in COVID-19 Hospitalizations and Deaths Across New York City Boroughs
Wadhera, R. K., Wadhera, P., Gaba, P., Figueroa, J. F., Maddox, K. E. J., Yeh, R. W., & Shen, C. (2020) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2020.7197 · Cited by 650 · see citing works
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Coronavirus Disease Outbreak in Call Center, South Korea
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Myers, L. C., Parodi, S. M., Escobar, G. J., & Liu, V. X. (2020) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2020.7202 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
Saliva as a Noninvasive Specimen for Detection of SARS-CoV-2
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Ultrastructural Characterization of SARS Coronavirus
Goldsmith, C. S., Tatti, K. M., Ksiazek, T. G., Rollin, P. E., Comer, J. A., Lee, W. W., Rota, P. A., Bankamp, B., Bellini, W. J., & Zaki, S. R. (2004) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid1002.030913 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
Fosbøl, E. L., Butt, J. H., Østergaard, L., Andersson, C., Selmer, C., Kragholm, K. H., Schou, M., Phelps, M. D., Gislason, G., Gerds, T. A., et al. (2020) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2020.11301 · Cited by 378 · see citing works
Basing Respiratory Management of COVID-19 on Physiological Principles
Tobin, M. J. (2020) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.202004-1076ed · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Is the coronavirus airborne? Experts can’t agree
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Tabata, S., Imai, K., Kawano, S., Ikeda, M., Kodama, T., Miyoshi, K., Obinata, H., Mimura, S., Kodera, T., Kitagaki, M., et al. (2020) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30482-5 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Kallikrein-kinin blockade in patients with COVID-19 to prevent acute respiratory distress syndrome
van de Veerdonk, F. L., Netea, M. G., van Deuren, M., van der Meer, J. W. M., de Mast, Q., Brüggemann, R. J. M., & van der Hoeven, H. (2020) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.57555 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Current pharmacological treatments for COVID‐19: What's next?
Scavone, C., Brusco, S., Bertini, M., Sportiello, L., Rafaniello, C., Zoccoli, A., Berrino, L., Racagni, G., Rossi, F., & Capuano, A. (2020) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.15072 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Childhood Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome — A New Challenge in the Pandemic
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Prolonged Persistence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in Body Fluids
Sun, J., Xiao, J., Sun, R., Tang, X., Liang, C., Lin, H., Zeng, L., Hu, J., Yuan, R., Zhou, P., et al. (2020) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid2608.201097 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Supportive Treatment with Tocilizumab for COVID-19: A Systematic Review
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Incidence of acute kidney injury in COVID-19 infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Chen, Y.-T., Shao, S., Hsu, C.-K., Wu, I., Hung, M., & Chen, Y. (2020) · Critical Care · doi:10.1186/s13054-020-03009-y · Cited by 157 · see citing works
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Clinical, Laboratory and Imaging Features of COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysisPreprint
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van de Veerdonk, F. L., Netea, M. G., van Deuren, M., et al. (2020) · doi:10.7554/elife.57555.sa2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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RETRACTED: 6-month consequences of COVID-19 in patients discharged from hospital: a cohort study
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RetractedSurviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021.
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Mechanical stiffness controls dendritic cell metabolism and function
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The Emerging Role of Vitamin C in the Prevention and Treatment of COVID-19
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Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021
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Burks, S. M., Rosas-Hernandez, H., Alejandro Ramirez-Lee, M., Cuevas, E., & Talpos, J. C. (2021) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.12.031 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
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Code status documentation at admission in COVID-19 patients: a descriptive cohort study
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- Authors
- Wiersinga, W. J., Rhodes, A., Cheng, A. C., Peacock, S. J., & Prescott, H. C.
- Affiliations
- Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam (NL)
- St George’s University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- The Alfred Hospital (AU)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wiersinga, W. Joost
- Venue
- JAMA
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2020-08-25
- Volume
- 324
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 782
- ISSN
- 0002-9955 (ISSN-L)
- 0098-7484
- OpenAlex
- W3041319886
- Cited by
- 4,609
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 132 · 2025: 224 · 2024: 463 · 2023: 726 · 2022: 1194 · 2021: 1479 · 2020: 385 · 2017: 3 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 44.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- pure.amsterdamumc.nl
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- JAMA (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, SARS-CoV-2, pathophysiology, transmission, diagnostic testing, RT-PCR, hypoxemic respiratory failure, dexamethasone, remdesivir, convalescent plasma, antiviral therapy, immunomodulators, anticoagulants, case fatality rate, lymphopenia
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 Vaccines, COVID-19 Testing, COVID-19 Drug Treatment, Humans, Lung, Oxygen Inhalation Therapy, Pneumonia, Viral, Prognosis, Viral Vaccines, Global Health, Hospital Mortality, Coronavirus Infections, Clinical Laboratory Techniques, Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction, Health Status Disparities, Pandemics
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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