Bias and error in human judgment

Kruglanski, Arie W.; Ajzen, Icek

doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420130102

Cited by 346Decision-Making and Behavioral EconomicsEpistemology, Ethics, and MetaphysicsClinical Reasoning and Diagnostic Skills

Bias and error in human judgment

Kruglanski, Arie W., Ajzen, Icek·1983·European Journal of Social Psychology

DOI 10.1002/ejsp.2420130102

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Currently prevalent views of human inference are contrasted with an integrated theory of the epistemic process. The prevailing views are characterized by the following orienting assumptions: (1) There exist reliable criteria of inferential validity based on objectively veridical or optimal modes of information processing. (2) Motivational and cognitive factors bias inferences away from these criteria and thus enhance the likelihood of judgmental error. (3) The layperson's epistemic process is pluralistic; it consists of a diverse repertory of information‐processing strategies (heuristics, schemas) selectively invoked under various circumstances. By contrast, the present analysis yields the following conclusions: (1) There exist no secure criteria of validity. (2) Psychological factors that bias inferences away from any currently accepted criteria need not enhance the likelihood of error. (3) The inference process may be considered unitary rather than pluralistic. The various strategies and biases discussed in the literature typically confound universal epistemic process with specific examples (or contents) of such processes. Empirical support for the present analysis is presented, including evidence refuting proposals that specific contents of inference are of universal applicability; evidence suggesting that people do not, because of a reliance on subnormative heuristics, underutilize nonnative statistical information—rather, people seem unlikely to utilize any information i…

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/ejsp.2420130102

Cites

127 of 127 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Biases do not necessarily imply errors.
“biases do not necessarily imply errors (Kruglanski & Ajzen, 1983, pp. 19-20)”
From Does preregistration improve the credibility of research findings? (2020) · cites this paper as Kruglanski & Ajzen, 1983, pp. 19-20

<i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i>
Kuhn, T. S., & Schlegel, R. (1963) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.3050879 · Cited by 35,538 · see citing works
Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases: Biases in judgments reveal some heuristics of thinking under uncertainty.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124 · Cited by 28,810 · see citing works
The Principles of Psychology
James, W. (1891) · Henry Holt and Company eBooks · doi:10.1037/11059-000 · Cited by 25,799 · see citing works
A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger, L. (1957) · doi:10.1515/9781503620766 · Cited by 24,241 · see citing works
Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1975) · Utility, Probability, and Human Decision Making · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1834-0_8 · Cited by 22,650 · see citing works
Advances In Experimental Social Psychology
(2022) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(22)x0002-6 · Cited by 22,559 · see citing works
A theory of social comparison processes
Festinger, L. (1954) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/001872675400700202 · Cited by 20,926 · see citing works
A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Morvan, C., & O’Connor, A. (2017) · Macat Library eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781912282432 · Cited by 18,284 · see citing works
The psychology of interpersonal relations
Heider, F. (1958) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2089062 · Cited by 17,189 · see citing works
The psychology of interpersonal relations.
Heider, F. (1958) · doi:10.1037/10628-000 · Cited by 13,457 · see citing works
The Handbook of Social Psychology
Gravatt, A. E., Lindzey, G. E., & Aronson, F. (1969) · The Family Coordinator · doi:10.2307/582242 · Cited by 12,518 · see citing works
Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes.
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.3.231 · Cited by 11,317 · see citing works
Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1973) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90033-9 · Cited by 9,984 · see citing works
The Logic of Scientific Discovery
Bhaskar, R. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203090732-9 · Cited by 7,765 · see citing works
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
Hall, M. B., & Kuhn, T. S. (1963) · The American Historical Review · doi:10.2307/1847040 · Cited by 7,753 · see citing works
Cognitive maps in rats and men
Tolman, E. C. (1948) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0061626 · Cited by 6,641 · see citing works
On the psychology of prediction.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1973) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0034747 · Cited by 6,202 · see citing works
The Intuitive Psychologist And His Shortcomings: Distortions in the Attribution Process
Ross, L. (1977) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60357-3 · Cited by 4,170 · see citing works
The processes of causal attribution.
Kelley, H. H. (1973) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0034225 · Cited by 4,025 · see citing works
Objective Knowledge, an Evolutionary Approach.
Ruja, H., & Popper, K. R. (1973) · Philosophy and Phenomenological Research · doi:10.2307/2106696 · Cited by 3,805 · see citing works
Belief in the law of small numbers.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1971) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0031322 · Cited by 3,246 · see citing works
Book Review Nisbett, R. , & Ross, L.Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980.
Miller, G. A., & Cantor, N. E. (1982) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1982.1.1.83 · Cited by 2,862 · see citing works
<i>The Logic of Scientific Discovery</i>
Popper, K. R., & Weiss, G. (1959) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.3060577 · Cited by 2,717 · see citing works
Forming impressions of personality.
Asch, S. E. (1946) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0055756 · Cited by 2,697 · see citing works
Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment.
Connolly, T., Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. D. (1981) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2392481 · Cited by 2,682 · see citing works
Attribution theory and research
Kelley, H. H., & Michela, J. L. (1980) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.31.020180.002325 · Cited by 2,651 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1972) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,635 · see citing works
Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction?
Miller, D. T., & Ross, M. (1975) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0076486 · Cited by 2,575 · see citing works
Advances in experimental social psychology
Berkowitz, L. J., Zanna, M. P., & Olson, J. M. (1964) · Academic Press eBooks · Cited by 2,247 · see citing works
FORMING IMPRESSIONS OF PERSONALITY
Asch, S. E. (1961) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/9780520313514-018 · Cited by 2,100 · see citing works
The halo effect: Evidence for unconscious alteration of judgments.
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.4.250 · Cited by 2,021 · see citing works
New directions in attribution research
Harvey, J. H., Ickes, W. J., & Kidd, R. F. (1976) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,996 · see citing works
Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science.
Black, M., Nagel, E., Suppes, P., & Tarski, A. (1963) · The Philosophical Review · doi:10.2307/2183047 · Cited by 1,949 · see citing works
The attribution of attitudes
Jones, E. E., & Harris, V. A. (1967) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(67)90034-0 · Cited by 1,783 · see citing works
Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: sadder but wiser?
Alloy, L., & Abramson, L. (1979) · Journal of experimental psychology. General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.108.4.441 · Cited by 1,733 · see citing works
Behavioral Decision Theory
Slovic, P., Fischhoff, B., & Lichtenstein, S. (1977) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.28.020177.000245 · Cited by 1,731 · see citing works
Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser?
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1979) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.108.4.441 · Cited by 1,692 · see citing works
OBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE: AN EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH
Swinburne, R. G. (1973) · Philosophical Books · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0149.1973.tb01507.x · Cited by 1,614 · see citing works
The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information about persons: Some determinants and implications.
Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1660 · Cited by 1,529 · see citing works
Category accessibility and impression formation
Higgins, E. T., Rholes, W. S., & Jones, C. R. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(77)80007-3 · Cited by 1,502 · see citing works
A Bayesian analysis of attribution processes.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1975) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0076477 · Cited by 1,486 · see citing works
Self-citation
Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge
Marshall, S. P., Cotton, J. W., Anderson, R. C., Spiro, R. J., & Montague, W. E. (1978) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421522 · Cited by 1,459 · see citing works
Psychology of Reasoning: Structure and Content
Wason, P. C., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1972) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,425 · see citing works
Achievement Motivation and Attribution Theory.
Sullivan, T. J., & Weiner, B. L. (1975) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2062395 · Cited by 1,412 · see citing works
Salience, Attention, and Attribution: Top of the Head Phenomena
Taylor, S. E., & Fiske, S. T. (1978) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60009-x · Cited by 1,306 · see citing works
Attribution in social interaction.
Kelley, H. H. (1987) · Cited by 1,272 · see citing works
Can human irrationality be experimentally demonstrated?
Cohen, L. J. (1981) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00009092 · Cited by 1,224 · see citing works
New Directions in Attribution Research
(2018) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203780978 · Cited by 1,197 · see citing works
The base-rate fallacy in probability judgments
Bar‐Hillel, M. (1980) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/0001-6918(80)90046-3 · Cited by 1,184 · see citing works
Artifact in behavioral research
Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1969) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,183 · see citing works
INTOLERANCE OF AMBIGUITY AS AN EMOTIONAL AND PERCEPTUAL PERSONALITY VARIABLE
FRENKEL-BRUNSWIK, E. (1949) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1949.tb01236.x · Cited by 1,179 · see citing works
Attribution of success and failure revisited, or: The motivational bias is alive and well in attribution theory
Zuckerman, M. (1979) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1979.tb00202.x · Cited by 1,136 · see citing works
Self-serving biases in the attribution process: A reexamination of the fact or fiction question.
Bradley, G. W. (1978) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.36.1.56 · Cited by 1,127 · see citing works
Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: Biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm.
Ross, L., Lepper, M. R., & Hubbard, M. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.5.880 · Cited by 1,052 · see citing works
Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: Biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm.
Ross, L. D., Lepper, M. R., & HUBBARD, M. L. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.32.5.880 · Cited by 1,052 · see citing works
Causal schemata and the attribution process
Kelley, H. H. (1972) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,048 · see citing works
The Nature of a Paradigm
Masterman, M. (1970) · Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139171434.008 · Cited by 1,015 · see citing works
Man as an intuitive statistician.
Peterson, C. R., & Beach, L. R. (1967) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0024722 · Cited by 988 · see citing works
Genesis of popular but erroneous psychodiagnostic observations.
Chapman, L. J., & Chapman, J. P. (1967) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0024670 · Cited by 863 · see citing works
Egocentric biases in availability and attribution.
Ross, M., & Sicoly, F. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.3.322 · Cited by 799 · see citing works
Assignment of responsibility for an accident.
Walster, E. (1966) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0022733 · Cited by 786 · see citing works
Progress in social psychology
Fishbein, M. (1980) · Lawrence Erlbaum Associates eBooks · Cited by 760 · see citing works
The how and what of why: Some determinants and consequences of causal attribution.
Mcarthur, L. A. (1972) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0032602 · Cited by 729 · see citing works
Social competence and depression: The role of illusory self-perceptions.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Mischel, W., Chaplin, W. F., & Barton, R. (1980) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.89.2.203 · Cited by 707 · see citing works
Logic of Discovery or Psychology of Research?
Kühn, T. (1970) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139171434.003 · Cited by 677 · see citing works
The rocky road from acts to dispositions.
JONES, E. E. (1979) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.34.2.107 · Cited by 660 · see citing works
Egocentric Biases in Availability and Attribution
Ross, M., & Sicoly, F. (2004) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203496398-12 · Cited by 660 · see citing works
Perceiving the Causes of Success and Failure
Schuster, B. H., Forsterlung, F., & Weiner, B. L. (1989) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022189202005 · Cited by 649 · see citing works
Attribution and the psychology of prediction.
Nisbett, R. E., & Borgida, E. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.5.932 · Cited by 642 · see citing works
Causal schemas in judgments under uncertainty
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. J. (1982) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511809477.009 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
Boston Studies in Philosophy of Science
Plaisance, K., & Reydon, T. A. C. (2012) · Cited by 602 · see citing works
Altruism and Helping Behavior
Stukas, A. A., & Clary, E. G. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-375000-6.00019-7 · Cited by 592 · see citing works
Culture and Thought: A Psychological Introduction
Deręgowski, J. B., Cole, M., & Scribner, S. (1976) · Leonardo · doi:10.2307/1573577 · Cited by 587 · see citing works
EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE AS A FUNCTION OF PERFORMER'S REWARD AND ATTRACTIVENESS.
Lerner, M. J. (1965) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0021806 · Cited by 556 · see citing works
Implicit personality theory: A review.
Schneider, D. J. (1973) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0034496 · Cited by 552 · see citing works
Point of view and perceptions of causality.
Taylor, S. E., & Fiske, S. T. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0077095 · Cited by 548 · see citing works
Social roles, social control, and biases in social-perception processes.
Ross, L. D., Amabile, T. M., & Steinmetz, J. L. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.7.485 · Cited by 541 · see citing works
Attribution of responsibility and valence of success and failure in relation to initial confidence and task performance.
Feather, N. (1969) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0028071 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
The order of presentation in persuasion
Hovland, C. I. (1957) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Intuitive theories of events and the effects of base-rate information on prediction
Ajzen, I. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.5.303 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
Self-citation
Emotionality and perceptual defense.
McGinnies, E. M. (1949) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0056508 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Person Perception and Interpersonal Behavior
Tagiuri, R., & Petrullo, L. (1959) · The American Journal of the Medical Sciences · doi:10.1097/00000441-195901000-00041 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Outcome dependency: Attention, attribution, and attraction.
Berscheid, E., Graziano, W., Monson, T. C., & Dermer, M. L. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.5.978 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability.
Levi, I., & Jeffrey, R. C. (1983) · The Philosophical Review · doi:10.2307/2184531 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
An atmosphere effect in formal syllogistic reasoning.
Woodworth, R. S., & Sells, S. B. (1935) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0060520 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
The endogenous-exogenous partition in attribution theory.
Kruglanski, A. W. (1975) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.82.6.387 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Self-citation
Dominance of accuracy information and neglect of base rates in probability estimation
Lyon, D., & Slovic, P. (1976) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/0001-6918(76)90032-9 · Cited by 372 · see citing works
Attribution bias: On the inconclusiveness of the cognition-motivation debate
Tetlock, P. E., & Levi, A. S. (1982) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(82)90082-8 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Ego involvement and attributions for success and failure.
Miller, D. T. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.5.901 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
II—Criticism and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes
Lakatos, I. (1969) · Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (Hardback) · doi:10.1093/aristotelian/69.1.149 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
On the subjective probability of compound events
Bar‐Hillel, M. (1973) · Organizational Behavior and Human Performance · doi:10.1016/0030-5073(73)90061-5 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
A Cognitive -Attributional Analysis of Stereotyping1
Hamilton, D. L. (1979) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60259-2 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Actors, observers, and the attribution process
Monson, T. C., & Snyder, M. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(77)90016-6 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Lay epistemo-logic--process and contents: Another look at attribution theory.
Kruglanski, A. W. (1980) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.87.1.70 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Self-citation
EMOTIONAL SELECTIVITY IN PERCEPTION AND REACTION*
Bruner, J. S., & Postman, L. J. (1947) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1947.tb01076.x · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Limits on perception of cognitive processes: A reply to Nisbett and Wilson.
Smith, E. R., & Miller, F. D. (1978) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.85.4.355 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Contemporary Approaches to Cognition.
Goodnow, J. J., Bruner, J. S., & Festinger, L. (1958) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2089022 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Deserving and the Emergence of Forms of Justice
Lerner, M. J., Miller, D. T., & Holmes, J. G. (1976) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60060-x · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Testing hypotheses about other people: The use of historical knowledge
Snyder, M., & Cantor, N. L. (1979) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(79)90042-8 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
How relevant is an individual difference theory of personality?1
Shweder, R. A. (1975) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1975.tb00716.x · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Impact of directly and indirectly experienced events: The origin of crime-related judgments and behaviors.
Tyler, T. R. (1980) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.39.1.13 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1959
Jones, M. R. (1960) · The American Journal of the Medical Sciences · doi:10.1097/00000441-196007000-00049 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Reactions to suffering of others under conditions of indirect responsibility.
Lerner, M. J., & Matthews, G. (1967) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0024304 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Focus of attention and causal attributions of actors and observers
Arkin, R. M., & Duval, S. (1975) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(75)90046-3 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Subjective sensitivity analysis
Fischhoff, B., Slovic, P., & Lichtenstein, S. (1979) · Organizational Behavior and Human Performance · doi:10.1016/0030-5073(79)90002-3 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Figural emphasis and person perception
Zebrowitz, L. A., & Post, D. L. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(77)90051-8 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Verbal reports about causal influences on social judgments: Private access versus public theories.
Nisbett, R. E., & Bellows, N. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.9.613 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Do people use consensus information in making causal attributions?
Wells, G. L., & Harvey, J. H. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.5.279 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability Volume 1
Carnap, R., & Jeffrey, R. C. (1971) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/9780520334250 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
A case of radical probability estimation.
Hammerton, M. (1973) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0035224 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
The role of sample size in sample evaluation
Bar‐Hillel, M. (1979) · Organizational Behavior and Human Performance · doi:10.1016/0030-5073(79)90028-x · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Effects of students' performance on teachers' and observers' attributions of causality.
Beckman, L. J. (1970) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0028821 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Some determinants and consequences of the teacher's perception of causation.
Johnson, T. J., Feigenbaum, R., & Weiby, M. (1964) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0043389 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Correlational bias in observer ratings.
Berman, J. S., & Kenny, D. A. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.2.263 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
The influence of psychological stress on the "intolerance of ambiguity."
Smock, C. D. (1955) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0047951 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Attribution of responsibility: A theoretical note
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1973) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(73)90006-1 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citation
Distortion in person perception as a consequence of the need for effective control.
Miller, D. T., Norman, S. A., & Wright, E. (1978) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.36.6.598 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
The lesser influence of consensus than distinctiveness information on causal attributions: A test of the person-thing hypothesis.
Zebrowitz, L. A. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.33.6.733 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Philosophy and the Science of Behavior
Wolf, W. J. (1967) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1967.21.4.850 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Changes in Social Perception as a Function of the Personal Relevance of Behavior
JONES, E. E., & deCharms, R. (1957) · Sociometry · doi:10.2307/2786115 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Order of consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency information and causal attributions.
Ruble, D. N., & Feldman, N. S. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.5.930 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
CONJECTURES AND REFUTATIONS
Danchin, A. (1979) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-460480-3.50037-7 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Observer bias: A stringent test of behavior engulfing the field.
Snyder, M. L., & Frankel, A. S. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.5.857 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Causal explanation, teleological explanation: On radical particularism in attribution theory.
Kruglanski, A. W. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.9.1447 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citation
Use of consensus information in causal attributions as a function of temporal presentation and availability of direct information.
Feldman, N. S., Higgins, E. T., Karlovac, M., & Ruble, D. N. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.4.694 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Consistency and bias in the attribution of attitudes.
Ajzen, I., Dalto, C. A., & Blyth, D. P. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1871 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citation
Inferences of personal characteristics on the basis of information retrieved from one's memory.
Yaacov Trope, B. (1978) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.36.2.93 · Cited by 24 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

The case for motivated reasoning.
Kunda, Z. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480 · Cited by 9,022 · see citing works
Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises
Nickerson, R. S. (1998) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175 · Cited by 7,267 · see citing works
Notes towards a description of social representations.
Moscovici, S. (1988) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420180303 · Cited by 2,003 · see citing works
Identity Processes and Social Stress
Burke, P. J. (1991) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2096259 · Cited by 1,762 · see citing works
On the accuracy of personality judgment: A realistic approach
Funder, D. C. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.4.652 · Cited by 1,342 · see citing works
The freezing and unfreezing of lay-inferences: Effects on impressional primacy, ethnic stereotyping, and numerical anchoring
Kruglanski, A. W., & Freund, T. (1983) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(83)90022-7 · Cited by 1,062 · see citing works
Self-citation
Conclusion: epistemic communities, world order, and the creation of a reflective research program
Adler, E., & Haas, P. M. (1992) · International Organization · doi:10.1017/s0020818300001533 · Cited by 1,039 · see citing works
Errors and mistakes: Evaluating the accuracy of social judgment.
Funder, D. C. (1987) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.75 · Cited by 869 · see citing works
The Theory of Ratio Scale Estimation: Saaty's Analytic Hierarchy Process
Harker, P. T., & Vargas, L. G. (1987) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.33.11.1383 · Cited by 869 · see citing works
Toward an Integration of Cognitive and Motivational Perspectives on Social Inference: A Biased Hypothesis-Testing Model
Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (1987) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60417-7 · Cited by 633 · see citing works
The ‘ultimate attribution error’? A review of the literature on intergroup causal attribution
Hewstone, M. (1990) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420200404 · Cited by 615 · see citing works
The Interpersonal Effects of Emotions in Negotiations: A Motivated Information Processing Approach.
Kleef, G. A. V., Dreu, C. K. W. D., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.4.510 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
Some considerations on the validity of evidence-based practice in social work
Webb, S. A. (2001) · The British Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1093/bjsw/31.1.57 · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Appraisal of the self-schema construct in cognitive models of depression.
Segal, Z. (1988) · Psychological bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.147 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Understanding Foreign Policy Decision Making
Mintz, A., & DeRouen, K. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511757761 · Cited by 439 · see citing works
Accuracy in interpersonal perception: A social relations analysis.
Kenny, D. A., & Albright, L. (1987) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.390 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
The psychology of being "right": The problem of accuracy in social perception and cognition.
Kruglanski, A. W. (1989) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.106.3.395 · Cited by 502 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Impact of Advertising Creativity on the Hierarchy of Effects
Smith, R. E., Chen, J., & Yang, X. (2008) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.2753/joa0091-3367370404 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Classic and current social comparison research: Expanding the perspective.
Kruglanski, A. W., & Mayseless, O. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.195 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Self-citation
Motivational Bases Of Information Processing and Strategy in Conflict and Negotiation
Dreu, C. K. W. D., & Carnevale, P. J. D. (2003) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(03)01004-9 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Delegitimization: The Extreme Case of Stereotyping and Prejudice
Bar-Tal, D. (1989) · Stereotyping and Prejudice · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-3582-8_8 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
What makes you so sure? Effects of epistemic motivations on judgmental confidence
Mayseless, O., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1987) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(87)90036-7 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Self-citation
Developing more effective social marketing strategies
Wymer, W. (2011) · Journal of Social Marketing · doi:10.1108/20426761111104400 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
On the Seizing and Freezing of Negotiator Inferences: Need for Cognitive Closure Moderates the Use of Heuristics in Negotiation
Dreu, C. K. W. D., Koole, S. L., & Oldersma, F. L. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167299025003007 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
The Freezing and Unfreezing of Impressional Primacy
Freund, T., Kruglanski, A., & Shpitzajzen, A. (1985) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167285114013 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Self-citation
Leader Ethical Decision-Making in Organizations: Strategies for Sensemaking
Thiel, C. E., Bagdasarov, Z., Harkrider, L. N., Johnson, J. F., & Mumford, M. D. (2012) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1299-1 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Consensus, Self‐Other Agreement, and Accuracy in Personality Judgment: An Introduction
Funder, D. C., & West, S. G. (1993) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1993.tb00778.x · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Beliefs and the Perception of Risks and Accidents
Kouabénan, D. R. (1998) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.1998.tb01291.x · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Theory-based bias correction in dispositional inference: The fundamental attribution error is dead, long live the correspondence bias
Gawronski, B. (2004) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280440000026 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Heuristics, servants to intuition, in clinical decision‐making
Cioffi, J. M. (1997) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1997.1997026203.x · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Reflecting on Six Decades of Selective Exposure Research: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities
Smith, S. M., Fabrigar, L. R., & Norris, M. E. (2008) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00060.x · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Psychological theory testing versus psychometric nay-saying: Comment on Neuberg et al.'s (1997) critique of the Need for Closure Scale.
Kruglanski, A. W., Atash, M. N., DeGrada, E., Mannetti, L., Pierro, A., & Webster, D. M. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.73.5.1005 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Self-citation
Active symbols and internal models: Towards a cognitive connectionism
Kaplan, S., Weaver, M., & French, R. M. (1990) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/bf01889764 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Predispositions about Learning from, Print and Television
Salomon, G., & Leigh, T. (1984) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1984.tb02164.x · Cited by 140 · see citing works
The ingroup overexclusion effect: Impact of valence and confirmation on stereotypical information search
Leyens, J., & Yzerbyt, V. Y. (1992) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420220604 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Wishful Thinking—Against All Odds
Babad, E. Y., & Katz, Y. (1991) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1991.tb00514.x · Cited by 134 · see citing works
What Does It Mean to be Biased
Hahn, U., & Harris, A. J. L. (2014) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800283-4.00002-2 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Nonrational processes in ethical decision making.
Rogerson, M. D., Gottlieb, M. C., Handelsman, M. M., Knapp, S. J., & Younggren, J. N. (2011) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0025215 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Social identities and psychosocial stress.
Burke, P. J. (1996) · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Clinical decision‐making by midwives: managing case Complexity
Cioffi, J., & Markham, R. (1997) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1997.1997025265.x · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Mental Models and Causal Explanation: Judgements of Probable Cause and Explanatory Relevance
Hilton, D. (1996) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/135467896394447 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Interactionism, idiographics, and the social psychological invasion of personality
Kenrick, D. T., & Dantchik, A. (1983) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1983.tb00335.x · Cited by 116 · see citing works
The effect of need and ability to achieve cognitive structuring on cognitive structuring
Bar-Tal, Y., Kishon-Rabin, L., & Tabak, N. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1158 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Altering information to gain action control: Functional aspects of human information processing in decision making
Beckmann, J., & Kühl, J. (1984) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/0092-6566(84)90031-x · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Contextual Effects in Hypothesis Testing: The Role of Competing Alternatives and Epistemic Motivations
Kruglanski, A. W., & Mayseless, O. (1988) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1988.6.1.1 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citation
Perception of risk in genetic counseling
Shiloh, S., & Saxe, L. (1989) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870448908400365 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Person Perception by Introverts and Extraverts Under Time Pressure: Effects of Need for Closure
Heaton, A. W., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1991) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/014616729101700207 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Self-citation
A study of the use of past experiences in clinical decision making in emergency situations
Cioffi, J. M. (2001) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/s0020-7489(00)00096-1 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Role of beliefs in accident and risk analysis and prevention
Kouabénan, D. R. (2008) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2008.01.010 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Conflict Termination: An Epistemological Analysis of International Cases
Bar‐Tal, D., Kruglanski, A. W., & Klar, Y. (1989) · Political Psychology · doi:10.2307/3791646 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citation
Covariation and causal attribution: A Logical Model of the intuitive analysis of variance.
Hewstone, M., & Jaspars, J. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.663 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
The Fundamental Computational Biases of Human Cognition: Heuristics That (Sometimes) Impair Decision Making and Problem Solving
Stanovich, K. E. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615771.011 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
The impact of Internet interactivity and need for closure on consumer preference
Amichai‐Hamburger, Y., Fine, A., & Goldstein, A. (2003) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(03)00041-4 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
The Social Judgeability Approach to Stereotypes
Leyens, J., Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Schadron, G. (1992) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792779243000032 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Evolutionary versus instrumental goals: How evolutionary psychology misconceives human rationality
(2004) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203641606-13 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Do People Experience Cognitive Biases while Searching for Information?
Lau, A. Y. S., & Coiera, E. W. (2007) · Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association · doi:10.1197/jamia.m2411 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Motivational effects in the social comparison of opinions.
Kruglanski, A. W., & Mayseless, O. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.53.5.834 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citation
“Hasta la vista, baby” – will machine learning terminate human literature reviews in entrepreneurship?
Robledo, S., Grisales Aguirre, A. M., Hughes, M., & Eggers, F. (2023) · Journal of Small Business Management · doi:10.1080/00472778.2021.1955125 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Bias, racism and evidence-based practice: The case for more focused development of the child welfare evidence base
Wells, S. J., Merritt, L. M., & Briggs, H. E. (2009) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.09.002 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Science as Psychology: Sense-Making and Identity in Science Practice
Osbeck, L. M., Nersessian, N. J., Malone, K. R., & Newstetter, W. (2010) · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Historical Perspectives in the Study of Action Control
Kühl, J., & Beckmann, J. (1985) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-69746-3_5 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Belief, knowledge, and uncertainty: A cognitive perspective on subjective probability
Smith, G. F., Benson, P. G., & Curley, S. P. (1991) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90016-m · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Majority and Minority Influence: A Judgmental Process Analysis
Kruglanski, A. W., & Mackie, D. M. (1990) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792779108401863 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citation
Occupation, driving experience, and risk and accident perception
Kouabénan, D. R. (2002) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669870110036577 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
The effect on mundane decision‐making of the need and ability to achieve cognitive structure
Bar‐Tal, Y. (1994) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2410080105 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Requesting information to form an impression: The influence of valence and confirmatory status
Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Leyens, J. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(91)90030-a · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Cognitive Aids and Debiasing Methods: CAN Cognitive Pills Cure Cognitive Ills?
Keren, G. B. (1990) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)61341-2 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
A view from a bridge: Synthesizing the consistency and attribution paradigms from a lay epistemic perspective
Kruglanski, A. W., & Klar, Y. (1987) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420170208 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citation
Charismatic leadership and follower effects
Conger, J. A., KANUNGO, R. N., & Menon, S. T. (2000) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/1099-1379(200011)21:7 · Cited by 716 · see citing works
Does preregistration improve the credibility of research findings?
Rubin, M. (2020) · The Quantitative Methods for Psychology · doi:10.20982/tqmp.16.4.p376 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“However, biases do not necessarily imply errors (Kruglanski & Ajzen, 1983, pp. 19-20), and historical transparency is not necessary in order for readers to identify either biases or errors in the researchers’ final conclusions.”
Background
Linking structures and sensitivity to judgment-relevant information in statistical and logical reasoning tasks.
Klar, Y. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.841 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Factors Influencing Wishful Thinking and Predictions of Election Outcomes
Babad, E. Y., Hills, M. D., & O’Driscoll, M. (1992) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1304_6 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Israeli-palestinian conflict: A cognitive analysis
Bar‐Tal, D. (1990) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/0147-1767(90)90045-x · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Wish and Reality in Voters' Predictions of Election Outcomes
Babad, E. Y., & Yacobos, E. (1993) · Political Psychology · doi:10.2307/3791392 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Can Cognitive Biases during Consumer Health Information Searches Be Reduced to Improve Decision Making?
Lau, A. Y. S., & Coiera, E. W. (2008) · Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association · doi:10.1197/jamia.m2557 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Unfortunate First Names
Gebauer, J. E., Leary, M. R., & Neberich, W. (2011) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550611431644 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Clinical attrition due to biased preclinical assessments of potential efficacy.
Lindner, M. (2007) · Pharmacology and Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2007.05.002 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Valid theory-testing meta-analyses further question the negative state relief model of helping.
Miller, N., & Carlson, M. E. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.215 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Using word embeddings to investigate cultural biases
Durrheim, K. L., Schuld, M., Mafunda, M. C., & Mazibuko, S. (2022) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12560 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The Rationality of Risky Decisions
Kühberger, A. (2002) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959354302012004293 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The Potential for Bias in Videotaped Confessions1
Lassiter, G. D., Slaw, R. D., BRIGGS, M. A., & Scanlan, C. R. (1992) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1992.tb00980.x · Cited by 50 · see citing works
A catalog of errors
Fraser, J., Smith, P. J., & Smith, J. W. (1992) · International Journal of Man-Machine Studies · doi:10.1016/0020-7373(92)90056-q · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Intratextual Fundamentalism and the Desire for Simple Cognitive Structure: The Moderating Effect of the Ability to Achieve Cognitive Structure
Muluk, H., & Sumaktoyo, N. G. (2010) · Archive for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1163/157361210x500919 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Implicit Bias ≠ Bias on Implicit Measures
Gawronski, B., Ledgerwood, A., & Eastwick, P. (2022) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2022.2106750 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Lay persons' sensitivity to statistical information: The case of high perceived applicability.
Kruglanski, A. W., Friedland, N., & Farkash, E. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.46.3.503 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citation
The effect of affect-based dissonance versus cognition-based dissonance on motivated reasoning and health-related persuasion.
Keller, P. A., & Block, L. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037//1076-898x.5.3.302 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Physics as a decision theory
Saaty, T. L. (1990) · European Journal of Operational Research · doi:10.1016/0377-2217(90)90066-k · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Trusting others: The polarization effect of need for closure.
Acar-Burkay, S., Fennis, B. M., & Warlop, L. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037022 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
The Moral Manager: Communicative Ethics and theExxon ValdezDisaster
Bowen, M. G., & Power, F. C. (1993) · Business Ethics Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3857366 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Field dependence and hindsight bias: Cognitive restructuring and the generation of reasons
Davies, M. F. (1992) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/0092-6566(92)90059-d · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Actor or victim of aggression: Divergent perspectives—divergent evaluations
Mummendey, A., Linneweber, V., & Löschper, G. (1984) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420140305 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Consensus Estimation in Social Context
Spears, R., & Manstead, A. S. R. (1990) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792779108401858 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The motivation to maintain favorable identities
Alicke, M. D., Sedikides, C., & Zhang, Y. (2019) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2019.1640786 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Grado de competencia social y comportamientos antisociales, delictivos y no delictivos en adolescentes
Fernández, R. A., Rivera, F. F., & Vázquez, M. J. D. (2011) · Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México) · doi:10.14349/rlp.v43i3.487 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Parents' assessment of their preschool children's bilingual development in the context of family language policy
Schwartz, M., & Moin, V. (2011) · Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development · doi:10.1080/01434632.2011.638078 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Evaluation of aggressive interactions in interpersonal and intergroup contexts
Otten, S., Mummendey, A., & Wenzel, M. (1995) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1995)21:3 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Auditors' Skeptical Characteristics and Their Relationship to Skeptical Judgments and DecisionsPreprint
Quadackers, L. M., Groot, T. L. C. M., & Wright, A. M. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1478105 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The profile of the ‘Good Judge’ in HRM: A systematic review and agenda for future research
Kock, F. S. D., Lievens, F., & Born, M. P. (2018) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2018.09.003 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The Cognitive Calculus of Foreign Policy Decision Making
Geva, N., Mayhar, J., & Skorick, J. M. (2000) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002700044004003 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
A Geometric Solution to Fair Representations
He, Y., Burghardt, K., & Lerman, K. (2020) · Proceedings of the AAAI/ACM Conference on AI Ethics and Society · doi:10.1145/3375627.3375864 · Cited by 33 · see citing works

Authors: Kruglanski, A. W., & Ajzen, I.
Affiliations: Tel Aviv University (IL)
Corresponding author: Kruglanski, Arie W.
ORCID: Kruglanski, Arie W.
Ajzen, Icek
Venue: European Journal of Social Psychology
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 1983-01
Volume: 13
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-44
ISSN: 0046-2772 (ISSN-L)
1099-0992
DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2420130102
OpenAlex: W2009485604
Cited by: 346
References: 127
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 6
FWCI: 6.93
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 8453 d)
Locations: European Journal of Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Epistemology, Ethics, and Metaphysics
Health Sciences › Medicine › Family Practice › Clinical Reasoning and Diagnostic Skills
Keywords: human judgment, cognitive biases, heuristics, schemas, epistemic processes, inferential validity, belief perseverance, discreditation, motivational factors, information processing strategies

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Bias and error in human judgment

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks