Cited by 643Sexual Differentiation and DisordersEstrogen and related hormone effectsNeuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research

Understanding the broad influence of sex hormones and sex differences in the brain

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McEwen, Bruce S., Milner, Teresa A.·2017·Journal of Neuroscience Research

Abstract

Sex hormones act throughout the entire brain of both males and females via both genomic and nongenomic receptors. Sex hormones can act through many cellular and molecular processes that alter structure and function of neural systems and influence behavior as well as providing neuroprotection. Within neurons, sex hormone receptors are found in nuclei and are also located near membranes, where they are associated with presynaptic terminals, mitochondria, spine apparatus, and postsynaptic densities. Sex hormone receptors also are found in glial cells. Hormonal regulation of a variety of signaling pathways as well as direct and indirect effects on gene expression induce spine synapses, up- or downregulate and alter the distribution of neurotransmitter receptors, and regulate neuropeptide expression and cholinergic and GABAergic activity as well as calcium sequestration and oxidative stress. Many neural and behavioral functions are affected, including mood, cognitive function, blood pressure regulation, motor coordination, pain, and opioid sensitivity. Subtle sex differences exist for many of these functions that are developmentally programmed by hormones and by not yet precisely defined genetic factors, including the mitochondrial genome. These sex differences and responses to sex hormones in brain regions, which influence functions not previously regarded as subject to such differences, indicate that we are entering a new era of our ability to understand and appreciate the diversity of gender-related behaviors and brain functions. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Marques-Lopes J Van Kempen T Waters EM Pickel VM Iadecola C Milner TA 2015b Slow-pressor angiotensin II hypertension and concomitant dendritic NMDA receptor trafficking in estrogen receptor beta-containing neurons of the mouse hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus are sex and age dependent The Journal of comparative neurology 69 148 65 PMC4106979 24639345
  2. McEwen BS Lasley EN 2005 The End of Sex as We Know It In Cerebrum The Dana Forum on Brain Science Dana Press
  3. Pfaff DW 1980b Estrogens and Brain Function New York Springer-Verlag

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Authors
McEwen, B. S., & Milner, T. A.
Affiliations
  • Rockefeller University (US)
  • Weill Cornell Medicine (US)
Corresponding author
McEwen, Bruce S.
Venue
Journal of Neuroscience Research
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2016-11-07
Volume
95
Issue
1-2
Pages
24-39
ISSN
  • 0360-4012 (ISSN-L)
  • 1097-4547
OpenAlex
W2552558587
Cited by
642
References
208
Citations by year
2026: 65 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 75 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 126 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 1
FWCI
3.65
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Journal of Neuroscience Research (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institutes of Health (HL098351, DA08259, HL096571, AG016765, MH41256, NS07080)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Estrogen and related hormone effects
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
Keywords
sex hormones, sex differences in brain, synaptic plasticity, neurotransmitter receptors, neuropeptide expression, oxidative stress, mood, cognitive function, blood pressure regulation, motor coordination, pain, opioid sensitivity, mitochondrial genome
MeSH terms
Animals, Brain, Female, Humans, Male, Sex Characteristics, Gonadal Steroid Hormones, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century

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