Sex Differences in the Brain: The Not So Inconvenient Truth
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### Introduction In 2001 the Institute of Medicine, a branch of the National Academy of Sciences in the U.S.A., concluded that many aspects of both normal and pathological brain functioning exhibit important yet poorly understood sex differences ([Wizemann and Pardu, 2001][1]). Ten years later, the
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Sex-based differences in brain circuitry probably affect response to environmental insult.
“Growing scientific attention is also being given to sex-based differences in brain circuitry (65), which probably affect response to environmental insult.”
From Where Sex Meets Gender: How Sex and Gender Come Together to Cause Sex Differences in Mental Illness (2022) · cites this paper as [65]
There is considerable evidence that sex is an important factor to consider in neuroscience research.
“Finally, there is considerable evidence that sex is an important factor to consider in neuroscience research,92–95”
From Effects of Traumatic Brain Injury on the Orexin/Hypocretin System (2025) · cites this paper as [94]
There are notable male biases throughout neuroscience and medical research.
“There are notable male biases throughout neuroscience and medical research and this bias may explain why studies looking at the effects of drugs tend to miss many adverse effects or show a lack of efficacy when applied to females.10, 46”
From Intranasal oxytocin enhances intrinsic corticostriatal functional connectivity in women (2017) · cites this paper as [46]
This male bias may explain why studies looking at effects of drugs tend to miss many adverse effects or show a lack of efficacy when applied to females.
“There are notable male biases throughout neuroscience and medical research and this bias may explain why studies looking at the effects of drugs tend to miss many adverse effects or show a lack of efficacy when applied to females.10, 46”
From Intranasal oxytocin enhances intrinsic corticostriatal functional connectivity in women (2017) · cites this paper as [46]
Occasionally, both sexes may converge to the same functional outcome despite having divergent underlying neuropathology.
“Occasionally, both sexes may converge to the same functional outcome despite having divergent underlying neuropathology. 48”
From Sex Differences in Traumatic Brain Injury: What We Know and What We Should Know (2019) · cites this paper as [48]
Such a model can account for mixed results, and highlights the benefits of study design that includes multiple outcome measurements.
“Such a model can account for mixed results, and highlights the benefits of study design that includes multiple outcome measurements. 48,111”
From Sex Differences in Traumatic Brain Injury: What We Know and What We Should Know (2019) · cites this paper as [48]
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“why studies looking at the effects of drugs tend to miss many adverse effects or show a lack of efficacy when applied to females (Beery and Zucker, 2011; McCarthy et al., 2012).”
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- Authors
- McCarthy, M. M., Arnold, A. P., Ball, G. F., Blaustein, J. D., & De Vries, G. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, Baltimore (US)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- University of Massachusetts Amherst (US)
- Venue
- The Journal of Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Society for Neuroscience
- Published
- 2012-02-14
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 2241-2247
- ISSN
- 0270-6474 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-2401
- PMC
- PMC3295598
- OpenAlex
- W2098360680
- Cited by
- 724
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 91 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 45 · 2014: 46 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 6.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Digital Archive @ GSU (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- Counseling And Psychological Services Dissertations (Georgia State University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH050388, R01MH047538, R01MH091424, R01MH052716)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK083561)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS050525)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal Abnormalities
- Keywords
- sex differences, brain, sex differences in brain function, Institute of Medicine report
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Clinical Trials as Topic, Female, Humans, Male, Sex Characteristics
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