The DOI matches its Crossref record; 7 of the 7 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Dose‐response analyses using restricted cubic spline functions in public health research
Abstract
Taking into account a continuous exposure in regression models by using categorization, when non‐linear dose‐response associations are expected, have been widely criticized. As one alternative, restricted cubic spline (RCS) functions are powerful tools (i) to characterize a dose‐response association between a continuous exposure and an outcome, (ii) to visually and/or statistically check the assumption of linearity of the association, and (iii) to minimize residual confounding when adjusting for a continuous exposure. Because their implementation with SAS® software is limited, we developed and present here an SAS macro that (i) creates an RCS function of continuous exposures, (ii) displays graphs showing the dose‐response association with 95 per cent confidence interval between one main continuous exposure and an outcome when performing linear, logistic, or Cox models, as well as linear and logistic‐generalized estimating equations, and (iii) provides statistical tests for overall and non‐linear associations. We illustrate the SAS macro using the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data to investigate adjusted dose‐response associations (with different models) between calcium intake and bone mineral density (linear regression), folate intake and hyperhomocysteinemia (logistic regression), and serum high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol and cardiovascular mortality (Cox model). Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
A new look at the statistical model identification
Akaike, H. (1974) · IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control · doi:10.1109/tac.1974.1100705 · Cited by 51,879
Regression Models and Life-Tables
Cox, D. R. (1972) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B: Statistical Methodology · doi:10.1111/j.2517-6161.1972.tb00899.x · Cited by 39,793
Updated Data on Proximal Femur Bone Mineral Levels of US Adults
Looker, A. C., Wahner, H. W., Dunn, W. L., Calvo, M. S., Harris, T. B., Heyse, S. P., Johnston Jr, C. C., & Lindsay, R. (1998) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s001980050093 · Cited by 1,121 · cited 1×
“BMD of the proximal femur (the hip region including the femoral neck, intertrochanter, trochanter, and total hip) was measured by dual X-ray absorptiometry [35].”
MethodThe use of fractional polynomials to model continuous risk variables in epidemiology
Royston, P., Ambler, G., & Sauerbrei, W. (1999) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/28.5.964 · Cited by 1,066
Pekkanen, J., Linn, S., Heiss, G., Suchindran, C. M., Leon, A., Rifkind, B. M., & Tyroler, H. A. (1990) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199006143222403 · Cited by 821
The concept of residual confounding in regression models and some applications
Becher, H. (1992) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.4780111308 · Cited by 168
Zhao, L. P., & Kolonel, L. N. (1992) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116520 · Cited by 108
Cited by
Srour, B., Fezeu, L. K., Kesse-Guyot, E., Allès, B., Méjean, C., Andrianasolo, R. M., Chazelas, E., Deschasaux, M., Hercberg, S., Galan, P., et al. (2019) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.l1451 · Cited by 955
Association of daily step count and step intensity with mortality among US adults
Saint-Maurice, P. F., Troiano, R. P., Bassett, D. R., Graubard, B. I., Carlson, S. A., Shiroma, E. J., Fulton, J. E., & Matthews, C. E. (2020) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2020.1382 · Cited by 660
Association of Step Volume and Intensity With All-Cause Mortality in Older Women
Lee, I.-M., Shiroma, E. J., Kamada, M., Bassett, D. R., Matthews, C. E., & Buring, J. E. (2019) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.0899 · Cited by 604
DNA methylation signatures in peripheral blood strongly predict all-cause mortality
Zhang, Y., Wilson, R., Heiss, J., Breitling, L. P., Saum, K.-U., Schöttker, B., Holleczek, B., Waldenberger, M., Peters, A., & Brenner, H. (2017) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms14617 · Cited by 382
Relationship between lifelong exercise volume and coronary atherosclerosis in athletes.
Aengevaeren, V. L., Mosterd, A., Braber, T. L., Prakken, N. H. J., Doevendans, P. A., Grobbee, D. E., Thompson, P. D., Eijsvogels, T. M. H., & Velthuis, B. K. (2017) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circulationaha.117.027834 · Cited by 312
Amount and Intensity of Leisure-Time Physical Activity and Lower Cancer Risk
Matthews, C. E., Moore, S. C., Arem, H., Cook, M. B., Trabert, B., Håkansson, N., Larsson, S. C., Wolk, A., Gapstur, S. M., Lynch, B. M., et al. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1200/jco.19.02407 · Cited by 294
“27,28 Using splines, we estimated HRs and 95% CIs for speci fi c MET hours/week values and described the shape of the overall dose-response and tested for linear and nonlinear shapes of each association.”
Gao, X., Geng, T., Jiang, M., Huang, N., Zheng, Y., Belsky, D. W., & Huang, T. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-38013-7 · Cited by 306
Li, Y., Ren, X., He, L., Li, J., Zhang, S., & Chen, W. (2020) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2020.108044 · Cited by 283
Dietary fiber intake and risk of type 2 diabetes: a dose–response analysis of prospective studies
Yao, B., Fang, H., Xu, W., Yan, Y., Xu, H., Liu, Y., Mo, M., Zhang, H., & Zhao, Y. (2014) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-013-9876-x · Cited by 281
Sugary drink consumption and risk of cancer: results from NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort
Chazelas, E., Srour, B., Desmetz, E., Kesse-Guyot, E., Julia, C., Deschamps, V., Druesne-Pecollo, N., Galan, P., Hercberg, S., Latino-Martel, P., et al. (2019) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.l2408 · Cited by 225
Debras, C., Chazelas, E., Sellem, L., Porcher, R., Druesne-Pecollo, N., Esseddik, Y., de Edelenyi, F. S., Agaësse, C., De Sa, A., Lutchia, R., et al. (2022) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2022-071204 · Cited by 222
Vigorous physical activity, incident heart disease, and cancer: how little is enough?
Ahmadi, M. N., Clare, P. J., Katzmarzyk, P. T., del Pozo Cruz, B., Lee, I. M., & Stamatakis, E. (2022) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehac572 · Cited by 175
Bonaccio, M., Di Castelnuovo, A., Costanzo, S., De Curtis, A., Persichillo, M., Sofi, F., Cerletti, C., Donati, M. B., de Gaetano, G., & Iacoviello, L. (2021) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa299 · Cited by 181
Paluch, A. E., Gabriel, K. P., Fulton, J. E., Lewis, C. E., Schreiner, P. J., Sternfeld, B., Sidney, S., Siddique, J., Whitaker, K. M., & Carnethon, M. R. (2021) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.24516 · Cited by 175
Chiu, H.-Y., Lee, H.-C., Chen, P.-Y., Lai, Y.-F., & Tu, Y.-K. (2018) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2018.07.003 · Cited by 165
LaCroix, A. Z., Bellettiere, J., Rillamas-Sun, E., Di, C., Evenson, K. R., Lewis, C. E., Buchner, D. M., Stefanick, M. L., Lee, I.-M., Rosenberg, D. E., et al. (2019) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.0419 · Cited by 162
Xiang, J., Bi, P., Pisaniello, D., Hansen, A., & Sullivan, T. (2014) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oemed-2013-101584 · Cited by 155
Chazelas, E., Pierre, F., Druesne-Pecollo, N., Esseddik, Y., Szabo de Edelenyi, F., Agaesse, C., De Sa, A., Lutchia, R., Gigandet, S., Srour, B., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyac046 · Cited by 135
Obesity and risk of bladder cancer: A dose-response meta-analysis of 15 cohort studies
Sun, J.-W., Zhao, L.-G., Yang, Y., Ma, X., Wang, Y.-Y., & Xiang, Y.-B. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0119313 · Cited by 133
Partula, V., Deschasaux, M., Druesne-Pecollo, N., Latino-Martel, P., Desmetz, E., Chazelas, E., Kesse-Guyot, E., Julia, C., Fezeu, L. K., Galan, P., et al. (2020) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa063 · Cited by 133
Liang, Y., Qu, L.-B., & Liu, H. (2019) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-018-1005-y · Cited by 116
Zhang, S., Gan, S., Zhang, Q., Liu, L., Meng, G., Yao, Z., Wu, H., Gu, Y., Wang, Y., Zhang, T., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyab174 · Cited by 113
Martínez Steele, E., Khandpur, N., da Costa Louzada, M. L., & Monteiro, C. A. (2020) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0236738 · Cited by 113
Miao, M., Dai, M., Zhang, Y., Sun, F., Guo, X., & Sun, G. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-00441-z · Cited by 107
Air pollution-induced missed abortion risk for pregnancies
Zhang, L., Liu, W., Hou, K., Lin, J., Zhou, C., Tong, X., Wang, Z., Wang, Y., Jiang, Y., Wang, Z., et al. (2019) · Nature Sustainability · doi:10.1038/s41893-019-0387-y · Cited by 92
Liu, X., Sun, Q., Hou, H., Zhu, K., Wang, Q., Liu, H., Zhang, Q., Ji, L., & Li, D. (2018) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000012860 · Cited by 72
“We calculated the nonlinear P-value by testing the null hypothesis that the second spline coefficient is equal to zero.([25]) We used the I(2) statistic and Q-test to assess heterogeneity across studies,([26]) and the no, low, moderate and high heterogeneity corresponded to the cut-points of 0%, 25%, 50% and 75%, resp…”
Clark, C. J., Alonso, A., Spencer, R. A., Pencina, M., Williams, K., & Everson-Rose, S. A. (2014) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2014.302148 · Cited by 64
Mendelson, M. M., Lyass, A., O’Donnell, C. J., D’Agostino, R. B., & Levy, D. (2016) · JAMA Cardiology · doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2015.0304 · Cited by 60
The association between BMI and gallbladder cancer risk: A meta-analysis
Li, Z.-M., Wu, Z.-X., Han, B., Mao, Y.-Q., Chen, H.-L., Han, S.-F., Xia, J.-L., & Wang, L.-S. (2016) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.9664 · Cited by 57
Piumatti, G., Moore, S. C., Berridge, D. M., Sarkar, C., & Gallacher, J. (2018) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdx186 · Cited by 51
Blood polyunsaturated omega‐3 fatty acids, brain atrophy, cognitive decline, and dementia risk
Thomas, A., Baillet, M., Proust‐Lima, C., Féart, C., Foubert‐Samier, A., Helmer, C., Catheline, G., & Samieri, C. (2021) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12195 · Cited by 54
Chen, G.-Q., Peng, C.-L., Lian, Y., Wang, B.-W., Chen, P.-Y., & Wang, G.-P. (2021) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.662357 · Cited by 55
“A P-value for non-linearity was calculated by testing the coefficient of the second spline equal to zero, as described previously (25).”
MethodCoffee Consumption and Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Dose-Response Analysis of Observational Studies
Tian, C., Wang, W., Hong, Z., & Zhang, X. (2013) · Cancer Causes & Control · doi:10.1007/s10552-013-0200-6 · Cited by 51
Peter‐Marske, K. M., Evenson, K. R., Moore, C. C., Cuthbertson, C. C., Howard, A. G., Shiroma, E. J., Buring, J. E., & Lee, I. (2023) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.122.028180 · Cited by 50
“Former 7352 (46) 1848 (46) 1855 (46) 1873 (47) 1776 (44)”
Braun, J. M., Li, N., Arbuckle, T. E., Dodds, L., Massarelli, I., Fraser, W. D., Lanphear, B. P., & Muckle, G. (2019) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2019.02.038 · Cited by 47
Internal exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in vegans and omnivores
Menzel, J., Abraham, K., Dietrich, S., Fromme, H., Völkel, W., Schwerdtle, T., & Weikert, C. (2021) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113808 · Cited by 40
Fang, A., Li, K., Li, H., Guo, M., He, J., Shen, X., & Song, J. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-08943-6 · Cited by 30
Martínez Steele, E., Buckley, J. P., & Monteiro, C. A. (2023) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2023.107598 · Cited by 36
Li, H., Chen, J., Lu, J., Yang, J., Tan, Z., Li, L., Xiao, F., An, Z., Ma, C., Liu, Y., et al. (2023) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137464 · Cited by 35
Association of resistance exercise with the incidence of hypercholesterolemia in men
Bakker, E. A., Lee, D.-C., Sui, X., Eijsvogels, T. M. H., Ortega, F. B., Lee, I.-M., Lavie, C. J., & Blair, S. N. (2018) · Mayo Clinic Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2017.11.024 · Cited by 33
Pertiwi, K., Küpers, L. K., de Goede, J., Zock, P. L., Kromhout, D., & Geleijnse, J. M. (2021) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.121.022617 · Cited by 32
Cheng, C., Zhang, D., Chen, S., & Duan, G. (2022) · Journal of Human Hypertension · doi:10.1038/s41371-021-00567-8 · Cited by 28
Interrelated aldosterone and parathyroid hormone mutually modify cardiovascular mortality risk
Tomaschitz, A., Pilz, S., Rus-Machan, J., Meinitzer, A., Brandenburg, V. M., Scharnagl, H., Kapl, M., Grammer, T., Ritz, E., Horina, J. H., et al. (2015) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2015.03.062 · Cited by 27
Maternal caffeine intake during pregnancy and child cognition and behavior at 4 and 7 years of age
Klebanoff, M. A., & Keim, S. A. (2015) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwv136 · Cited by 24
Zhu, P., Lao, G., Li, H., Tan, R., Gu, J., & Ran, J. (2023) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-023-01488-0 · Cited by 23
Zhao, R., Zhou, L., Wang, S., Xiong, G., & Hao, L. (2022) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d1fo03033g · Cited by 23
Maternal serum paraxanthine during pregnancy and offspring body mass index at ages 4 and 7 years
Klebanoff, M. A., & Keim, S. A. (2015) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000000220 · Cited by 17
Maalmi, H., Walter, V., Jansen, L., Owen, R. W., Ulrich, A., Schöttker, B., Chang-Claude, J., Hoffmeister, M., & Brenner, H. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10040510 · Cited by 16
Yang, J., Wang, T., Li, K., & Wāng, Y. (2025) · Journal of Advanced Research · doi:10.1016/j.jare.2024.04.022 · Cited by 15
“We also use RCS to discover dose–response relationships between PFAS and AAC risk [50].”
Qin, X., Hung, J., Knuiman, M. W., Briffa, T. G., Teng, T.-H. K., & Sanfilippo, F. M. (2023) · European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00228-023-03467-7 · Cited by 12
Han, X., Zhang, X., Liu, Z., Fan, H., Guo, C., Wang, H., Gu, Y., & Zhang, T. (2024) · Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.1111/1753-0407.13564 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Desquilbet, L., & Mariotti, F.
- Venue
- Statistics in Medicine
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2010-01-19
- Volume
- 29
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1037-1057
- ISSN
- 0277-6715 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-0258
- OpenAlex
- W2150130690
- Cited by
- 1,980
- References
- 7
- FWCI
- 22.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
