Rape or Homicide: Which Is Worse?

May combine two claims.

McCollister et al. estimated that murder produced the greatest loss to society at nearly $9 million per offense, rape/sexual assault followed with a total per-offense cost of $240,776, and the economic cost of murder was more than 37 times the cost of rape.

“They estimated that murder produced the greatest loss to society at nearly $9 million per offense.Rape/ sexual assault followed murder with a total per-offense cost of $240,776.The economic cost of murder was more than 37 times the cost of rape, according to their estimates.”

• cites McCollister et al. (2010) sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Attitudes about social-cultural and economic issues are correlated but distinct.

“While attitudes about social-cultural and economic issues are correlated, they are distinct”

• cites Malka et al., 2019 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study joins a growing number within criminology that find MFT useful for explaining crime and justice-related outcomes.

“Finally, our study joins a growing number within criminology which find that MFT is useful for explaining crime and justice-related outcomes (e.g., Burton et al., 2021;Nix et al., 2021;Silver & Silver, 2021;Silver et al., 2022;Vaughan et al., 2019).”

• cites Burton et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Nix et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Silver & Silver, 2021 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The pattern of predicted values shows a strong inverse relationship between progressivism and the relative seriousness of rape for women but not for men.

“The pattern of predicted values (see Fig. 1) shows a strong inverse relationship between progressivism and the relative seriousness of rape for women but not for men.”

May combine two claims.

There was no evidence that relative judgments of rape and homicide are related to age, education, or race/ethnicity, except that those who identified as other race were more likely to view rape as more serious than homicide when harm orientation was removed from the model.

“we saw no evidence that the relative judgments of rape and homicide are related to the age, education, or race/ethnicity of the respondent, except that those who identified as “other” race were more likely view rape as more serious than homicide when harm orientation was removed from the model.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The coefficient for gender traditionalism predicting viewing rape as more serious than homicide was not statistically significant (b = 0.13, SE = 0.08, p = .13).

“However, the coefficient for viewing rape as more serious than homicide was not statistically significant (b = 0.13, SE = 0.08, p = .13).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In the past, the death penalty was given to rape offenders and seduction laws existed to punish more minor sexual mistreatment of women by men.

“In the past, the death penalty was given to rape offenders and seduction laws existed to punish more minor sexual mistreatment of women by men.”

May combine two claims.

The coefficient for progressive attitudes on believing rape is less serious than homicide versus equally serious is in the predicted direction but weak and not statistically significant.

“Model 4 in the right panel of Table 2 shows that the coefficient for progressive attitudes is in the predicted direction, but it is weak and not statistically significant.”

May combine two claims.

In a nationally representative sample, 26% of respondents viewed rape as less serious than homicide, 61% viewed them as equally serious, and 13% viewed rape as more serious.

“However, our evidence from a nationally representative sample suggests that only 26% of respondents view rape as less serious.Most (61%) view rape as being equally serious and 13% view it as more serious.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The correlation between the gender traditionalism item and the social progressivism measure was r = -0.35 (p < .001).

“Still, the correlation between this item and our measure of social progressivism was r = -0.35(p = < .001).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

None of the three binding moral foundations (loyalty, respect for authority, sanctity) were related to beliefs about the relative seriousness of rape and homicide.

“Finally, we examined the three”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In a supplementary ordered regression treating the rape/homicide judgment as a continuous variable, the results were similar to the main results, including the statistical interaction.

“In a supplementary analysis, we treated the judgment of rape/ homicide as a continuous variable and used ordered regression.The results were similar, including the statistical interaction.”

May combine two claims.

Neither interaction between gender traditionalism and respondent sex was statistically significant (rape less serious: b = 0.20, SE = 0.13, p = .14; rape more serious: b = 0.09, SE = 0.18, p = .61).

“Both statistical interactions between gender traditionalism and respondent sex were in the predicted direction, but neither was statistically significant (b = 0.20, SE = 0.13, p = .14for rape being less serious; b = 0.09, SE = 0.18, p = .61for rape being more serious).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The patterns observed were similar (although not always statistically significant) when the gender traditionalism item was substituted for the progressivism scale.

“Finally, the patterns we observed were similar (although not always statistically significant) when we substituted the gender traditionalism item for our progressivism scale.”

May combine two claims.

Some prior studies found homicide ranked as more serious, some less serious, and some equally serious, and some found the ranking depended on gender.

“Some studies found that homicide was ranked as more serious, some less serious, and some equally serious.Some studies found that the ranking depended on gender.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Conservatives view drug crimes as more serious than do progressives.

“research has found that conservatives view drug crimes as more serious than do progressives”

• cites Stylianou, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Social progressives view rape more seriously than social conservatives because of their concern for gender inequality, but this concern is partially offset by their concern with harm.

“We suggest that social progressives view rape more seriously than social conservatives because of their concern for gender inequality, but this concern is partially offset by their concern with harm.”

May combine two claims.

The prior surveys found were based on ratings or rankings of many crimes, did not force respondents to directly compare rape and homicide, and were at least twenty years old, with the larger American surveys at least forty years old.

“The surveys we found were based on ratings or rankings of many crimes; they did not force respondents to directly compare the seriousness of rape and homicide.All of them were at least twenty years old and the larger American surveys were at least forty years old.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Prior research shows that many people in the past viewed rape as just as serious as homicide.

“prior research shows that many people in the past viewed rape as just as serious as homicide”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Felson and Feld (2009) found that respondents in a nationally representative sample judged violence against women more harshly than violence against men whether they were liberals, conservatives, or moderates.

“Felson and Feld (2009) found that respondents in a nationally representative sample judged violence against women more harshly than violence against men whether they were liberals, conservatives, or moderates.”

• cites Felson and Feld (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Rape has characteristics that may increase judgments of its severity and make it more comparable to homicide, including violating bodily control, causing severe physical and psychological harm, causing STDs and unwanted pregnancies, creating fear among women, involving violation of trust, and reinforcing gender inequalities.

“rape violates a person's right to control their own body; it can cause severe physical and psychological harm to the victim; it can result in sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancies; it creates a climate of fear and insecurity among women; it often involves a violation of trust; and it may reinforce gender inequalities”

• cites Tjaden & Thoennes, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Moral foundations theory conceptualizes morality as rooted in a dual process system in which intuitive moral cognitions precede and influence deliberative moral reasoning.

“Moral foundations theory (MFT; Haidt, 2012) conceptualizes morality as rooted in a “dual process” system in which intuitive moral cognitions, i.e., moral foundations, precede and influence deliberative moral reasoning”

• cites Haidt, 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kahneman, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Rape typically involves a man's violence against a woman, while homicide typically involves two men.

“Rape typically involves a man's violence against a woman, while homicide typically involves two men”

• cites U.S Department of Justice, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Hsu (1973) found that female students in Taiwan in 1968 rated rape as more serious, while males rated homicide as more serious.

“Hsu (1973) found that female students in Taiwan in 1968 rated rape as more serious, while the males rated homicide as more serious.”

• cites Hsu (1973) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

They judge wrongfulness based on how much blame they attribute to the offender and the importance of the social norm that has been violated.

“They judge wrongfulness based on how much blame they attribute to the offender and the importance of the social norm that has been violated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The decision about which offense is more serious is difficult because it depends on the criteria one uses.

“Note that the decision is difficult because it depends on the criteria one uses.”

May combine two claims.

These explanations can help account for why some respondents view rape as just as serious as homicide, but they cannot explain why progressive women view rape more seriously.

“These explanations can help account for why some respondents view rape as just as serious as homicide, but they cannot explain why progressive women view rape more seriously.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some progressives may believe that rape is more harmful than homicide, especially if they believe that rape victims suffer serious emotional consequences and that some never recover.

“However, we recognize that some progressives may believe that rape is more harmful than homicide, especially if they believe that rape victims suffer serious emotional consequences and that some never recover.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Progressivism is a difficult concept to precisely define, and beliefs about systemic racism do not fully define the attitudes of progressives.

“Progressivism is a difficult concept to precisely define and beliefs about systemic racism do not fully define the attitudes of progressives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

While there is considerable consensus about the relative seriousness of different offenses, political ideology and moral foundations can affect judgments.

“While there is considerable consensus about the relative seriousness of different offenses (e.g., Robinson & Kurzban, 2006), political ideology and moral foundations can affect judgments.”

• cites Robinson & Kurzban, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The final sample included 1,113 respondents after cases with missing data were removed.

“The final sample included 1,113 respondents, after cases with missing data were removed.”

May combine two claims.

Social progressives' concern for inequality may lead them to be less punitive toward offenders (often minorities) but more punitive toward those who attack minorities and women.

“Their concern for inequality may lead them to be less punitive toward offenders (who are often minorities) but more punitive toward those who attack minorities and women (e.g., Felson, 1991).”

• cites Felson, 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Individuals base their judgements about the seriousness of different types of crime on their perceptions of harm and wrongfulness.

“Individuals base their judgements about the seriousness of different types of crime on their perceptions of harm and wrongfulness (Warr, 1985(Warr, , 1989)).”

• cites Warr, 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Warr, 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The harm orientation scale had alpha = 0.73.

“The items were averaged to form a scale (alpha = 0.73).”

May combine two claims.

In the former case, progressives focus on the offender's lower social status; in the latter, on the victim's lower social status.

“In the former case, they focus on the offender's lower social status, while, in the latter case, they focus on the victim's lower social status.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

People may have difficulty deciding which of two evils is worse and may describe the two offenses as equally serious because that is the path of least cognitive effort.

“It may also be the case that people have difficulty deciding which of two evils is worse.They may describe the two offenses as equally serious because that is the path of least cognitive effort.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Attitudes toward gender and rape might be related due to overlapping measurement.

“Attitudes toward gender and rape might be related due to overlapping measurement.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Haidt categorizes moral foundations into five domains: harm, fairness, respect for authority, ingroup loyalty, and sanctity.

“Haidt (2012) categorizes moral foundations into five domains: harm, fairness, respect for authority, ingroup loyalty, and sanctity.”

• cites Haidt (2012)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some respondents described as progressive based on racial attitudes may not be progressive on gender issues.

“Some of the respondents we describe as progressive based on their racial attitudes may not be progressive on gender issues.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One cannot be confident about causal inferences based on cross-sectional analyses of correlational data.

“We recognize, of course, that one cannot be confident about causal inferences based on cross-sectional analyses of correlational data.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The harm foundation is the most theoretically germane foundation in judging the relative importance of rape and homicide.

“The harm foundation is the most theoretically germane foundation in judging the relative importance of rape and homicide”

• cites Haidt, 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

People envision some homicides as justifiable (e.g., self-defense or reaction to provocation) and are less likely to imagine justifications for rape.

“Another explanation is that people envision some homicides as justifiable.They may attribute some homicides to self-defense or view them as a reaction to a strong provocation.On the other hand, they may be less likely to imagine justifications for rape.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It is an advantage that the measure of social progressivism focuses on attitudes toward inequality in a domain separate from gender.

“Fourth, we see it as an advantage that our measure of social progressivism focuses on attitudes toward inequality in a domain separate from gender.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It is difficult to imagine an explanation of the strong association between beliefs about systemic racism and attitudes toward rape and the statistical interaction that does not involve the effects of progressivism.

“Third, it is difficult to imagine an explanation of the strong association between beliefs about systematic racism and attitudes toward rape and the statistical interaction we observe that does not involve the effects of progressivism.”

May combine two claims.

YouGov uses a model-based sampling approach to produce matched, weighted samples that generalize extremely well to the US adult population.

“YouGov uses a model-based sampling approach to produce matched, weighted samples that generalize extremely well to the US adult population”

• cites Ansolabehere & Rivers, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ansolabehere & Schaffner, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Graham et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An evolutionary perspective suggests that rape is judged as extremely serious because the reproductive success and ultimate fitness of women are jeopardized by anything that circumvents their mate choice.

“As indicated above, an evolutionary perspective suggests that rape is judged as extremely serious because the reproductive success and ultimate fitness of women are jeopardized by anything that circumvents their mate choice (Buss, 2021;McKibbin & Shackelford, 2011;Symons, 1979).”

• cites Buss, 2021Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites McKibbin & Shackelford, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Symons, 1979Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Progressives' attitude toward inequality may lead them to view rape as more serious, while their harm orientation may lead them to view homicide as more serious.

“Progressives' attitude toward inequality may lead them to view rape as more serious, while their harm orientation may lead them to view homicide as more serious.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

It is difficult to imagine alternative explanations of the observed relationship between progressivism and attitudes toward rape and homicide.

“However, it is difficult to imagine alternative explanations of the relationship between progressivism and attitudes toward rape and homicide that we observe.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The trauma may be greater if victims believe that rape is more serious or just as serious as homicide.

“In addition, the trauma may be greater if victims believe that rape is more serious or just as serious as homicide (Felson, 2002).”

• cites Felson, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Prior research shows that people are much more likely to condemn male violence when the victim is a woman.

“Prior research shows that people are much more likely to condemn male violence when the victim is a woman, so it seems unnecessary to examine gender differences.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Data were collected by YouGov after receiving approval from the authors' university's institutional review board.

“Data were collected by YouGov after receiving approval from the authors' university's institutional review board.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Severe punishments can make convictions more difficult if jurors are reluctant to incarcerate offenders for long periods of time.

“On the other hand, severe punishments can make convictions more difficult if jurors are reluctant to incarcerate offenders for long periods of times (Hong, 2018).”

• cites Hong, 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some people do attempt to excuse or justify rape.

“Of course, some people do attempt to excuse or justify rape (e.g.,Kanin, 1985;Yapp & Quayle, 2018).”

• cites Kanin, 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yapp & Quayle, 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A sixth item (

“A sixth item (It can never be right to kill a human being) was omitted from the scale because it reduced the scale alpha to .67.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

YouGov obtained informed consent from all participants included in the study.

“YouGov obtained informed consent from all participants included in the study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The scaling would not affect the multivariate results.

“Note that the scaling would not affect our multivariate results.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

No significance tests were performed in these studies.

“No significance tests were performed in these studies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The observed pattern is so strong that scaling effects would not affect our conclusions.

“However, the observed pattern is so strong that scaling effects would not affect our conclusions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Attitudes toward the seriousness of rape in relation to homicide may have important consequences, both positive and negative.

“Attitudes toward the seriousness of rape in relation to homicide may have important consequences, both positive and negative.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The normative protection of women from men is sometimes described as chivalry and other times as benevolent sexism or paternalism.

“The normative protection of women from men is sometimes described as chivalry and other times described as benevolent sexism or paternalism (e.g.,Felson, 2002;Glick & Fiske, 1996).”

• cites Felson, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Glick & Fiske, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The KHB test was developed for nonlinear dependent variables, but in STATA it can be applied to linear ones as well, in which case it is the same as the Sobel test.

“The KHB test was developed for nonlinear dependent variables(Breen et al., 2013), but in STATA it can be applied to linear ones as well, in which case it is the same as the Sobel test.”

• cites Breen et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Most research in the social sciences focuses on explaining the behavior and attitudes of conservatives, relying on concepts such as right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, or system justification.

“Most research in the social sciences focuses on explaining the behavior and attitudes of conservatives, relying on concepts such as rightwing authoritarianism (Altemeyer, 1981), social dominance orientation (Sidanius & Pratto, 2008), or system justification (Jost et al., 2004).”

• cites Altemeyer, 1981Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sidanius & Pratto, 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Jost et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Those with a harm orientation base their decision on the degree of harm and are therefore more inclined to rank the crime resulting in death as more serious.

“Those with a harm orientation base their decision on the degree of harm and are therefore more inclined to rank the crime resulting in death as more serious.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

Viewing rape as more serious than homicide is one such issue (difficult to explain without reference to a progressive ideology).

“Viewing rape as more serious than homicide is one such issue.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The attitude that rape is more serious than homicide may deter potential rapists if they realize the seriousness of the crime.

“The attitude may also deter potential rapists if they realize the seriousness of the crime.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Marital rape was not studied.

“Marital rape was not studied.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The research is unusual in that it attempts to explain the attitudes of progressives rather than the attitudes of conservatives.

“Our research is unusual in that it attempts to explain the attitudes of progressives rather than the attitudes of conservatives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recovery may be more difficult for victims who believe that they have suffered a fate worse than death.

“Recovery may be more difficult for victims who believe that they have suffered a fate worse than death.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Women with a progressive ideology focus more on the seriousness of violence against women and are therefore more inclined to rank rape as more serious.

“Women with a progressive ideology, on the other hand, focus more on the seriousness of violence against women; they are therefore more inclined to rank rape as more serious.”

May combine two claims.

None of the VIFs for all measures exceeded 1.31, below the critical value of 4.00 for multicollinearity problems.

“We examined the variance inflation factors (VIFs) for all measures and found that none exceeded 1.31, which is below the critical value of 4.00 typically employed to indicate multicollinearity problems(Fisher & Mason, 1981).”

• cites Fisher & Mason, 1981Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study was approved by a university IRB.

“The study was approved by a university IRB.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Activists who depict rape as more serious than homicide may be better able to gain support for efforts to reduce violence against women.

“On the one hand, activists who depict rape as more serious than homicide may be better able to gain support for their efforts to reduce violence against women (e.g., Best, 2017).”

• cites Best, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source