Overlapping and Distinct Cognitive Impairments in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity and Autism Spectrum Disorder without Intellectual Disability

“Multiple Comparisons A false discovery rate correction for multiple comparisons was applied (Benjamini and Hochberg 1995).”

“It provides a secure web-based and intuitive interface and export capabilities (Harris et al. 2009).”

“Diffusionmodel There is increasing recognition that many psychiatric symptom dimensions are shared across existing diagnostic boundaries, and the extent to which this indicates shared liability or etiology across disorders remains a major question (Insel et al. 2010; Sanislow et al. 2010).”

“1998), Conner’s Rating Scale, 3rd edition (Conners 2008), and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman 2001), and an in-person semi-structured diagnostic interview (Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia, KSADS; Puig-Antich and Ryan 1986), while the child completed IQ screening and brie…”

“Although there is heterogeneity in the ADHD population (Fair et al. 2012; Nigg et al. 2005), at the group level relatively consistent impairments have been found in individuals with ADHD in each of these domains (Huang-Pollock et al. 2012; Kofler et al. 2013; Willcutt et al. 2005).”

“Head-to-head comparisons of children with ASD and ADHD have yielded conflicting results as to whether executive function impairments and differences in reward processing are more pronounced in ADHD (Happe et al. 2006; Nyden et al. 2010) or in ASD (Geurts et al. 2004; Pennington and Ozonoff 1996).”

“Cognitive abilities develop rapidly over middle childhood and adolescence(Best and Miller 2010; Karalunas et al. 2017; Miller et al. 2013) and whether the ASD and ADHD groups show distinct trajectories of cognitive development is unable to be evaluated in this cross-sectional study.”

“Multiple cognitive domains have been proposed as relevant in ADHD and, to a lesser extent, in ASD, including: 1) response inhibition (Logan 1994; Nigg 2000); 2) interference control; 3) working memory (Baddeley 1996; De Luca et al. 2003; Engle 2002; Kane et al. 2007; Unsworth and Engle 2007), 4)…”

“Deficits in several aspects of executive function have also been found in individuals with ASD relative to controls, particularly in set-shifting (Hill 2004; Ozonoff and Jensen 1999; Sanders et al. 2008).”

“…inhibition (Logan 1994; Nigg 2000); 2) interference control; 3) working memory (Baddeley 1996; De Luca et al. 2003; Engle 2002; Kane et al. 2007; Unsworth and Engle 2007), 4) set-shifting and 5) reward valuation, particularly delayed reward discounting (Demurie et al. 2012; Hulst et al. 2017;…”

“Delayed Reward Valuation Delayed reward valuation was assessed using a computerized delay discounting questionnaire, based on the task described by Mitchell (1999) and Wilson et al. (2011).”

“Although there is heterogeneity in the ADHD population (Fair et al. 2012; Nigg et al. 2005), at the group level relatively consistent impairments have been found in individuals with ADHD in each of these domains (Huang-Pollock et al. 2012; Kofler et al. 2013; Willcutt et al. 2005).”

“Deficits in several aspects of executive function have also been found in individuals with ASD relative to controls, particularly in set-shifting (Hill 2004; Ozonoff and Jensen 1999; Sanders et al. 2008).”

“Working Memory Children completed a computerized version of a spatial working memory task identical to the spatial span task from the CANTAB (De Luca et al. 2003).”

“However, other studies also suggest that individuals with ADHD and ASD perform similarly (Geurts et al. 2004; Raymaekers et al. 2007; Semrud-Clikeman et al. 2010).”

“…measures of executive functioning, reaction time (RT) measures are of increasing interest in both ADHD and ASD as a window into the intersection of bottomup information processing and cognitive control (Karalunas et al. 2014; Kofler et al. 2013; Rommelse et al. 2011; van der Meer et al. 2012).”

“Head-to-head comparisons of children with ASD and ADHD have yielded conflicting results as to whether executive function impairments and differences in reward processing are more pronounced in ADHD (Happe et al. 2006; Nyden et al. 2010) or in ASD (Geurts et al. 2004; Pennington and Ozonoff 1996).”

“Overall, results confirm some specificity in features contributing to RT differences in ASD and ADHD.”

“…2014)often enough to warrant clinical recognition in the DSM-5, co-occur at rates well above chance (Musser et al. 2014; Rommelse et al. 2011), and have overlapping genetic correlates (Rommelse et al. 2010; Ronald et al. 2008), suggesting they may be different manifestations of a shared liability.”

“…2014)often enough to warrant clinical recognition in the DSM-5, co-occur at rates well above chance (Musser et al. 2014; Rommelse et al. 2011), and have overlapping genetic correlates (Rommelse et al. 2010; Ronald et al. 2008), suggesting they may be different manifestations of a shared liability.”

“Although there is heterogeneity in the ADHD population (Fair et al. 2012; Nigg et al. 2005), at the group level relatively consistent impairments have been found in individuals with ADHD in each of these domains (Huang-Pollock et al. 2012; Kofler et al. 2013; Willcutt et al. 2005).”

“…1) response inhibition (Logan 1994; Nigg 2000); 2) interference control; 3) working memory (Baddeley 1996; De Luca et al. 2003; Engle 2002; Kane et al. 2007; Unsworth and Engle 2007), 4) set-shifting and 5) reward valuation, particularly delayed reward discounting (Demurie et al. 2012;…”

“However, our results suggest important amendments to the shared liability proposal for RT measures (Rommelse et al. 2011).”

“In addition, diffusion model parameters were estimated from the trial-by-trial RT time series using the Fast-dm modeling technique and the downloadable program from the author’s website (Voss and Voss 2007), and as previously published (Huang-Pollock et al. 2012; Karalunas and Huang-Pollock 2013).”

“In addition, diffusion model parameters were estimated from the trial-by-trial RT time series using the Fast-dm modeling technique and the downloadable program from the author’s website (Voss and Voss 2007), and as previously published (Huang-Pollock et al. 2012; Karalunas and Huang-Pollock 2013).”

“RTspeed and variability reflect the influence of multiple interacting processes (Ratcliff 2002) that traditional RT measures, such as mean and standard deviation, do not differentiate.”

“…2) interference control; 3) working memory (Baddeley 1996; De Luca et al. 2003; Engle 2002; Kane et al. 2007; Unsworth and Engle 2007), 4) set-shifting and 5) reward valuation, particularly delayed reward discounting (Demurie et al. 2012; Hulst et al. 2017; Mitchell 1999; Sagvolden et al. 1998).”

“Wider boundary separation is not associated with ADHD (Karalunas et al. 2014; van Mourik et al. 2005), but has been found in ASD (as compared to typical development) in the only other study applying a diffusion model approach in this population (Pirrone et al. 2017).”

“ASD and ADHD are sometimes hypothesized to be different manifestations of a shared liability (van der Meer et al. 2012), and cognitive impairments have been proposed as indicators of this shared risk.”

“up information processing and cognitive control (Karalunas et al. 2014; Kofler et al. 2013; Rommelse et al. 2011; van der Meer et al. 2012).”

“Response Inhibition Response inhibition was evaluated based on a tracking version of the stop task (Logan 1994; Nigg 1999).”

“…difficulty with response inhibition and delayed reward discounting, whereas those with ASD may have more trouble with set-shifting and working memory (Corbett et al. 2009; Demurie et al. 2012; Gargaro et al. 2011; Happe et al. 2006; Hulst et al. 2017; Ozonoff and Jensen 1999; Sinzig et al. 2008).”

“Processes not directly related to the response decision, such as stimulus encoding and motor response, are modeled by non-decision time (Ratcliff 2006).”

“However, other studies also suggest that individuals with ADHD and ASD perform similarly (Geurts et al. 2004; Raymaekers et al. 2007; Semrud-Clikeman et al. 2010).”

“Delayed Reward Valuation Delayed reward valuation was assessed using a computerized delay discounting questionnaire, based on the task described by Mitchell (1999) and Wilson et al. (2011).”

“Exclusion of children on non-stimulant medications may also reduce generalizability of results, particularly for the ASD sample because of possible limited efficacy and potential for greater side effects in this diagnostic group (Davis and Kollins 2012).”

“Clinically, recent review of the National Survey of Children’s Health data found that ASD diagnosis is often delayed when ADHD symptoms are also present, and these delays are independent of ASD severity (Miodovnik et al. 2015).”

“Despite conceptually distinct surface phenotypes, ADHD and ASD share overlapping features (Ronald et al. 2014)often enough to warrant clinical recognition in the DSM-5, co-occur at rates well above chance (Musser et al. 2014; Rommelse et al. 2011), and have overlapping genetic correlates (Rommelse…”

“Deficits in several aspects of executive function have also been found in individuals with ASD relative to controls, particularly in set-shifting (Hill 2004; Ozonoff and Jensen 1999; Sanders et al. 2008).”

“Head-to-head comparisons of children with ASD and ADHD have yielded conflicting results as to whether executive function impairments and differences in reward processing are more pronounced in ADHD (Happe et al. 2006; Nyden et al. 2010) or in ASD (Geurts et al. 2004; Pennington and Ozonoff 1996).”

“…2) interference control; 3) working memory (Baddeley 1996; De Luca et al. 2003; Engle 2002; Kane et al. 2007; Unsworth and Engle 2007), 4) set-shifting and 5) reward valuation, particularly delayed reward discounting (Demurie et al. 2012; Hulst et al. 2017; Mitchell 1999; Sagvolden et al. 1998).”

“…impairments appear to be primarily driven by slow drift rates (i.e., slow, inefficient information processing) and to a lesser extent fast non-decision times, but are unrelated to differences in boundary separation (HuangPollock et al. 2012; Karalunas et al. 2014; Karalunas and Huang-Pollock 2013).”

“Cognitive abilities develop rapidly over middle childhood and adolescence(Best and Miller 2010; Karalunas et al. 2017; Miller et al. 2013) and whether the ASD and ADHD groups show distinct trajectories of cognitive development is unable to be evaluated in this cross-sectional study.”

“…ASD share overlapping features (Ronald et al. 2014)often enough to warrant clinical recognition in the DSM-5, co-occur at rates well above chance (Musser et al. 2014; Rommelse et al. 2011), and have overlapping genetic correlates (Rommelse et al. 2010; Ronald et al. 2008), suggesting they may be…”

“…difficulty with response inhibition and delayed reward discounting, whereas those with ASD may have more trouble with set-shifting and working memory (Corbett et al. 2009; Demurie et al. 2012; Gargaro et al. 2011; Happe et al. 2006; Hulst et al. 2017; Ozonoff and Jensen 1999; Sinzig et al. 2008).”

“The only study to-date applying this model in ASD found that children with ASD have wider boundary separations and slower non-decisions times than typically-developing children, but no differences in drift rates (Pirrone et al. 2017).”

“Attention/Arousal A computerized Identical Pairs CPT (CPT-IP), similar to the A-X CPT design used by Nigg et al. (1996) was used to assess attention/arousal.”

“Cognitive abilities develop rapidly over middle childhood and adolescence(Best and Miller 2010; Karalunas et al. 2017; Miller et al. 2013) and whether the ASD and ADHD groups show distinct trajectories of cognitive development is unable to be evaluated in this cross-sectional study.”

“Valuation of delayed rewards was quantified as the discounting gradient (k) because prior publication indicated this best differentiates ADHD and control performance (Mitchell et al. 2015).”

“…2) interference control; 3) working memory (Baddeley 1996; De Luca et al. 2003; Engle 2002; Kane et al. 2007; Unsworth and Engle 2007), 4) set-shifting and 5) reward valuation, particularly delayed reward discounting (Demurie et al. 2012; Hulst et al. 2017; Mitchell 1999; Sagvolden et al. 1998).”

“…using continuous symptom measures supports that impairments in response inhibition (Corbett et al. 2009; Yerys et al. 2013) and arousal (Corbett et al. 2009) in ASD may be driven by comorbid ADHD symptoms, whereas ASD symptoms may contribute unique variance to processing speed (Yerys et al. 2013).”

“However, other studies also suggest that individuals with ADHD and ASD perform similarly (Geurts et al. 2004; Raymaekers et al. 2007; Semrud-Clikeman et al. 2010).”

“Diffusion modeling has been previously used successfully in the analysis of go-trials of a stop task in adults (Verbruggen and Logan, 2009) and in our own work in both ADHD and autism spectrum disorders (Karalunas et al., 2018; Karalunas and Huang-Pollock, 2013; Karalunas et al., 2012a).”

“Yet, the eventual aim is to use the VR-EAL to assess cognitive impairments in healthy aging and dementias (Anderson & Craik, 2017) or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism (Karalunas et al., 2018).”