Phenomenological Fingerprints of Four Meditations: Differential State Changes in Affect, Mind-Wandering, Meta-Cognition, and Interoception Before and After Daily Practice Across 9 Months of Training
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Despite increasing interest in the effects of mental training practices such as meditation, there is much ambiguity regarding whether and to what extent the various types of mental practice have differential effects on psychological change. To address this gap, we compare the effects of four common meditation practices on measures of state change in affect, mind-wandering, meta-cognition, and interoception. In the context of a 9-month mental training program called the ReSource Project, 229 mid-life adults (mean age 41) provided daily reports before and after meditation practice. Participants received training in the following three successive modules: the first module (presence) included breathing meditation and body scan, the second (affect) included loving-kindness meditation, and the third (perspective) included observing-thought meditation. Using multilevel modeling, we found that body scan led to the greatest state increase in interoceptive awareness and the greatest decrease in thought content, loving-kindness meditation led to the greatest increase in feelings of warmth and positive thoughts about others, and observing-thought meditation led to the greatest increase in meta-cognitive awareness. All practices, including breathing meditation, increased positivity of affect, energy, and present focus and decreased thought distraction. Complementary network analysis of intervariate relationships revealed distinct phenomenological clusters of psychological change congruent with the content of each practice. These findings together suggest that although different meditation practices may have common beneficial effects, each practice can also be characterized by a distinct short-term psychological fingerprint, the latter having important implications for the use of meditative practices in different intervention contexts and with different populations.
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In the ReSource project, socio-cognitive perspective-taking practices led to improvements in meta-cognitive awareness and Theory of Mind.
“socio-cognitive perspective-taking practices led to improvements in meta-cognitive awareness and Theory of Mind [30,31]”
From 10-Week Trajectories of Candidate Psychological Processes Differentially Predict Mental Health Gains from Online Dyadic versus Mindfulness Interventions: A Randomized Clinical Trial (2024) · cites this paper as [30]
The Discussion reports that observing-thought meditation in the ReSource Project’s perspective module produced the greatest increase in meta-cognitive awareness of thoughts. The paper reports changes measured before and after meditation practice, but the cited passages do not report an improvement in Theory of Mind; that part of the claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrior studies have demonstrated that attention-focused meditation reduces past- and future-related thoughts while socio-emotional practices increase positive other-related thoughts.
“prior studies [30,98] have demonstrated that attention-focused meditation reduces past- and future-related thoughts while socio-emotional practices increase positive other-related thoughts.”
From 10-Week Trajectories of Candidate Psychological Processes Differentially Predict Mental Health Gains from Online Dyadic versus Mindfulness Interventions: A Randomized Clinical Trial (2024) · cites this paper as [30]
The Results (Within-Person Analyses; page unavailable) report that body scan, a focused-attention practice, significantly reduced both past- and future-related thoughts. Breath-focused meditation significantly reduced future-related thoughts, but not past-related thoughts, so the claim is too broad for attention-focused practices generally. The Discussion reports that loving-kindness meditation increased positively valenced and other-focused thoughts. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the ReSource project, attention-focused mindfulness practices led to enhanced interoceptive awareness and attention control.
“in a large-scale 9-month study, the ReSource project [29] employing three distinct intervention modules, it was shown that attention-focused mindfulness practices led to enhanced interoceptive awareness and attention control [30,31]”
Different meditation practices have shown distinct neural signatures and can produce different psychological effects.
“Different meditation practices have shown distinct neural signatures [55,56] and can produce different psychological effects [57].”
From Testing the efficacy of a multicomponent, self-guided, smartphone-based meditation app: Three-armed randomized controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as [57]
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Subjective Experiences of Committed Meditators Across Practices Aiming for Contentless States
Woods, T. J., Windt, J., Brown, L., Carter, O. L., & Dam, N. T. V. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02145-0 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Be well: A systems-based wellness intervention using mindfulness in the workplace – A case study
Levett, K. M., Coughlan, S., Longridge, S., Roumeliotis, V., & Adams, J. (2017) · Journal of Management & Organization · doi:10.1017/jmo.2017.41 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Silveira, S., Godara, M., Faschinger, A., & Singer, T. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.08.093 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationMeditation and interoception: a conceptual framework for the narrative and experiential self
Gibson, J. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393969 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Scattolin, M., Panasiti, M. S., & Aglioti, S. M. (2022) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.220061 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The path to contentless experience in meditation: An evidence synthesis based on expert texts
Woods, T. J., Windt, J., & Carter, O. L. (2022) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-022-09812-y · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Future research could examine the techniques and interim-states using partic-ipant-based methods like questionnaires (e.g., Kok & Singer, 2017; Woods et al., 2022b) or microphenomenology (e.g., Petitmengin et al., 2019; Przyrembel & Singer, 2018).”
Synchrony with distress in affective empathy and compassion
Dor‐Ziderman, Y., Cohen, D., Levit‐Binnun, N., & Golland, Y. (2021) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13889 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Lumma, A., Böckler, A., Vrtička, P., & Singer, T. (2017) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2017.1294107 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Robinson, C. S. H., Armenta, M., Combs, A., Lamphere, M. L., Garza, G. J., Neary, J., Wolfe, J. H., Molina, E., Semey, D. E., McKee, C. M., et al. (2017) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2017.1397054 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Godara, M., Hecht, M., & Singer, T. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.03.037 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Wu, Q., Mao, X., Luo, W., Fan, J., Liu, X., & Wu, Y. (2021) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13991 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Spreading positive change: Societal benefits of meditation
Engert, V., Klimecki, O., & Kanske, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1038051 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Maloney, S., Surawy, C., Martin, M., Montero-Marin, J., & Kuyken, W. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02193-6 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…that is shared across all MBPs. Early research has provided empirical support (Blanck et al., 2018; Car-mody & Baer, 2008; Sauer-Zavala et al., 2013; Schumer et al., 2018; Singer & Kok, 2017) demonstrating that mind-fulness practices can produce independent effects outside the framework of MBPs.”
BackgroundHooi, L. Y., Chen, P. L., Tan, K. W., de Vries, M., & Wong, H. K. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-23727-z · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Joshi, N., Vinu, V., Jois, S. N., Begum, F., & Salagame, K. K. K. (2021) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-021-00869-8 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Abdoun, O., Poublan‐Couzardot, A., Offort, S., Pagnoni, G., & Antoine Lutz, A. (2025) · Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2025.100474 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“The LAMP adopted 1 question on the distractibility of thoughts from Kok and Singer (mental stickiness), as well as 4 questions that pertain to the temporal orientation and self/ other orientation of spontaneous thoughts (13).”
InfluentialA neuroscience perspective on the plasticity of the social and relational brain
Singer, T. (2025) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.15319 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Hunt, C., Goodman, R. D., Hilert, A. J., Hurley, W., & Hill, C. E. (2021) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2021.1895724 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Pagni, B. A., Williams, C., Abrams, G., Blais, C., Brewer, G. A., & Braden, B. B. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02195-4 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Brahmi, M., Soni, D., Sarkar, S., Desai, A., Sahni, P., & Kumar, J. (2025) · Annals of Neurosciences · doi:10.1177/09727531251326302 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Malandrone, F., Urru, S., Berchialla, P., Rossini, P. G., Oliva, F., Bianchi, S., Ottaviano, M., Gonzalez-Martinez, S., Carli, V., Valenza, G., et al. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/57415 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Zen meditation neutralizes emotional evaluation, but not implicit affective processing of words
Lusnig, L., Radach, R. R., Mueller, C. J., & Hofmann, M. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0229310 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Out of sight, out of mind? Exploring the long-term effects of Relational Mindfulness Training (RMT)
Vich, M., Lukeš, M., & Burian, J. (2020) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2020.04.001 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Linz, R., Puhlmann, L. M. C., Engert, V., & Singer, T. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105800 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Matko, K., & Sedlmeier, P. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02248-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Fostering Holistic Hand Therapy: Emergent Themes of Client Experiences of Mind–Body Interventions
Takata, S. C., Hardison, M. E., & Roll, S. C. (2019) · OTJR Occupational Therapy Journal of Research · doi:10.1177/1539449219888835 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Petzold, P., Silveira, S., Godara, M., Matthaeus, H., & Singer, T. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40636-1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Ritz, T., Meuret, A. E., & Corner, S. E. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-68521-7_12 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Zarate‐Guerrero, S., Duran, J. M., & Naismith, I. (2022) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2704 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Todd, J., Hina, F., & Aspell, J. E. (2020) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-020-05740-y · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Impact of a Short Body–Focused Meditation on Body Ownership and Interoceptive Abilities
Schroter, F. A., Siebertz, M., & Jansen, P. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-02039-7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The presence module, which included breathing meditation and body-scan, especially led to improved body awareness, e.g., IS and IAc (Bornemann & Singer, 2017; Bornemann et al., 2015; Kok & Singer, 2017).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGolubickis, M., Tan, L., Jalalian, P., Falbén, J. K., & Macrae, N. (2024) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241228859 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Notable psychological fingerprints of this practice include heightened meta-cognitive awareness, enhanced emotional regulation, and increased present-moment focus (Kok & Singer, 2017; Kropp & Sedlmeier, 2019).”
BackgroundEmpowering Students Through Mindfulness and Meditation Practices
Singha, R. (2024) · Advances in educational marketing, administration, and leadership book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-1455-5.ch006 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Mylius, M., Guendelman, S., Iliopoulos, F., Gallese, V., & Kaltwasser, L. (2024) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.14712 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ge, Y., Ashwin, C., Li, F., Cao, W., Zhang, Y., Zhao, X., Sun, B., & Li, W. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275903 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Godara, M., & Singer, T. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13113295 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…intervention modules, it was shown that attention-focused mindfulness practices led to enhanced interoceptive awareness and attention control [30,31], socio-cognitive perspective-taking practices led to improvements in meta-cognitive awareness and Theory of Mind [30,31], and socio-affective…”
BackgroundResultMeditation as an Intervention for Health: A Framework for Understanding Meditation Research
Allbritton, M. M., & Heeter, C. (2018) · OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.21926/obm.icm.1804025 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Meditation affects word recognition of meditation novices
Lusnig, L., Radach, R. R., & Hofmann, M. (2021) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-021-01522-5 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Happiness: Developing Skills for Meditation
Vinh, T. H. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-2637-4_17 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Resilience Building Practices for Women Physicians
Hobgood, C., & Jarman, A. F. (2023) · Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.1089/jwh.2022.0502 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“53 LK meditation is focused primarily on affect.”
Evaluation of Mindfulness Eating Apps
Guluzade, L., & Sas, C. (2023) · Electronic workshops in computing · doi:10.14236/ewic/bcshci2023.29 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Hsu, A., Wu, C., Ng, H. H., Chuang, C., Huang, C., Wu, C. W., & Chao, Y. (2024) · Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine · doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2024.108446 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Mikkelsen, M. B., & O’Toole, M. S. (2023) · Journal of Psychotherapy Integration · doi:10.1037/int0000302 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Introducing brief mindfulness practices to mitigate faculty burnout in the post-COVID era
Bitting, K. S., & Sweet, M. S. (2025) · The International Journal for Academic Development · doi:10.1080/1360144x.2025.2451318 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Zammatteo, N., & Botman, M. (2018) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2018.06.003 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Reddy, J. S. K., Pereira, A., Leite, E. D. S., & Roy, S. (2019) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2019.100774 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Evaluating an Instructional Resource Used for Teaching and Learning Meditation: a Pilot Study
Burke, A., & Hassett, S. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-020-00168-2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…teacher wisely stated that “…catching yourself in the act of distraction is the true test of tranquility meditation, for what counts is not the ability to prevent thoughts or emotions from arising but the ability to catch ourselves in a particular mental or emotional state” (Kyabgon 2015).”
Background
- Authors
- Kok, B. E., & Singer, T.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Kok, Bethany E.
- ORCID
- Singer, Tania
- Venue
- Mindfulness
- Published
- 2016-08-19
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 218-231
- ISSN
- 1868-8527 (ISSN-L)
- 1868-8535
- PMC
- PMC5241345
- OpenAlex
- W2518497773
- Cited by
- 144
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 9
- FWCI
- 16.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2016-10-22)
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Mindfulness (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- European Research Council (BE) (ERC-2007-StG)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
- Keywords
- meditation, mindfulness training, affect, mind wandering, metacognition, interoception, interoceptive awareness, loving-kindness meditation, body scanning, breathing meditation, resource projects, middle-aged adults, psychological change, positive affect
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