Differential effects of mindful breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and loving-kindness meditation on decentering and negative reactions to repetitive thoughts
Open accessAbstract
Decentering has been proposed as a potential mechanism of mindfulness-based interventions but has received limited empirical examination to date in experimental studies comparing mindfulness meditation to active comparison conditions. In the present study, we compared the immediate effects of mindful breathing (MB) to two alternative stress-management techniques: progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) and loving-kindness meditation (LKM) to test whether decentering is unique to mindfulness meditation or common across approaches. Novice meditators (190 female undergraduates) were randomly assigned to complete one of three 15-min stress-management exercises (MB, PMR, or LKM) presented by audio recording. Immediately after the exercise, participants completed measures of decentering, frequency of repetitive thoughts during the exercise, and degree of negative reaction to thoughts. As predicted, participants in the MB condition reported greater decentering relative to the other two conditions. The association between frequency of repetitive thought and negative reactions to thoughts was relatively weaker in the MB condition than in the PMR and LKM conditions, in which these two variables were strongly and positively correlated. Consistent with the construct of decentering, the relative independence between these two variables in the MB condition suggests that mindful breathing may help to reduce reactivity to repetitive thoughts. Taken together, results help to provide further evidence of decentering as a potential mechanism that distinguishes mindfulness practice from other credible stress-management approaches.
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Several unassessed processes, such as decentering, may enhance the effects of mindfulness.
“The effects of mindfulness may be enhanced by several processes that were not assessed in this study, including decentering that was identified by Feldman, Greeson, and Senville (2010) and Shapiro et al. (2006) as a core mechanism.”
From A Mindfulness-Based Intervention: Differential Effects on Affective and Processual Evolution (2018) · cites this paper as Feldman et al., 2010
The Abstract describes decentering as a proposed potential mechanism of mindfulness-based interventions, and the Discussion says the study provides further evidence for it as a mechanism distinguishing mindfulness practice from other exercises. The paper does not establish decentering as a core mechanism or show that it enhances mindfulness’s effects. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn that study, a three-way interaction indicated that only those in the mindful breathing condition who improved highly on decentering showed a decoupling effect between frequency of and reactions to thoughts.
“Furthermore, a three-way interaction adding self-reported decentering indicated that only those in the mindful breathing condition who improved highly on decentering showed a decoupling effect between frequency of and reactions to thoughts.”
From Decoupling as a Mechanism of Change in Mindfulness and Acceptance: A Literature Review (2015) · cites this paper as Feldman et al., 2010
The Results (Correspondence between measures of decentering; page not supplied) report that participants in mindful breathing who experienced high decentering showed greater independence between thought frequency and negative reactions. However, the three-way interaction was only marginally significant (p = .058), and the paper describes high post-exercise decentering, not improvement in decentering over time. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMindfulness training has been associated with increased decentering and metacognitive awareness.
“Indeed, mindfulness training has been associated with increased decentering and metacognitive awareness [44–46].”
From Testing the mindfulness-to-meaning theory: Evidence for mindful positive emotion regulation from a reanalysis of longitudinal data (2017) · cites this paper as [45]
The Discussion (page unavailable) reports higher decentering scores after mindful breathing than after either comparison exercise, supporting the decentering part of the claim. It describes decentering as a higher-order metacognitive skill, but does not report a separate increase in metacognitive awareness. (LLM, conf=0.81)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredExperimental studies have shown that decentering increases only in the mindfulness condition when compared to a control, relaxation, or loving-kindness meditation.
“Experimental studies have provided support for such claims, with decentering increasing only in the mindfulness condition when compared to a control, relaxation, or loving-kindness mediation, respectively (Erisman & Roemer, 2010; Feldman et al., 2010).”
From Mediators of acceptance and mindfulness-based therapies for anxiety and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Feldman et al., 2010
The Discussion reports higher post-exercise decentering scores after mindful breathing than after progressive muscle relaxation or loving-kindness meditation. The study did not measure a pre-to-post increase in decentering or include a neutral control condition, so it does not establish that decentering increased only in the mindfulness condition. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAttending to cognition within a mindful internal experience could increase awareness of repetitive thoughts and lead to exposure and habituation, potentially aiding emotional processing and reducing the impact of repetitive thoughts.
“Attending to cognition as part of a mindful internal experience could help in the development of awareness of repetitive thoughts and lead to exposure and habituation processes, which may contribute to emotional processing and reduce the impact of repetitive thoughts (Feldman et al., 2010;Shapiro et al., 2006).”
From A Mindfulness-Based Intervention: Differential Effects on Affective and Processual Evolution (2018) · cites this paper as Feldman et al., 2010
In a laboratory-based study with 190 college students, mindful breathing led to significantly greater frequency of repetitive thoughts during the exercise as well as greater self-reported decentering.
“Results indicated that mindful breathing led to significantly greater frequency of repetitive thoughts during the exercise as well as greater self-reported decentering.”
From Decoupling as a Mechanism of Change in Mindfulness and Acceptance: A Literature Review (2015) · cites this paper as Feldman et al., 2010
In that study, frequency of thoughts was significantly less related to negative reactions to thoughts in the mindful breathing condition relative to the other two conditions.
“A moderation effect was found such that frequency of thoughts was significantly less related to negative reactions to thoughts in the mindful breathing condition, relative to the other two conditions.”
From Decoupling as a Mechanism of Change in Mindfulness and Acceptance: A Literature Review (2015) · cites this paper as Feldman et al., 2010
This review supports the traditional AMT account, with studies showing decoupling effects are related to improvements in self-compassion from treatment, improvements in decentering following mindful breathing, and amount of meditation practice.
“This review supports the traditional AMT account, with studies showing decoupling effects are related to improvements in self-compassion from treatment (Kuyken et al., 2010), improvements in decentering following mindful breathing (Feldman et al., 2010) and amount of meditation practice (Elwafi et al., 2013).”
From Decoupling as a Mechanism of Change in Mindfulness and Acceptance: A Literature Review (2015) · cites this paper as Feldman et al., 2010
No studies were found that directly tested such a decoupling effect from defusion/decentering in isolation.
“no studies were found that directly tested such a decoupling effect from defusion/decentering in isolation (although see Feldman et al., 2010 for an example of a decentering measure correlating with a decoupling effect from mindful breathing).”
From Decoupling as a Mechanism of Change in Mindfulness and Acceptance: A Literature Review (2015) · cites this paper as Feldman et al., 2010
Decentering increased as a result of brief mindful breathing compared to other stress-reduction techniques.
“and decentering increased as a result of brief mindful breathing compared to other stress-reduction techniques (Feldman et al., 2010).”
From Measuring Decentering – Development and Validation of the French Version of the Experiences Questionnaire (EQ-F) (2024) · cites this paper as Feldman et al., 2010
Those studies demonstrated the beneficial effects of mindfulness.
“Most studies applied progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) as an active control group and demonstrated the beneficial effects of mindfulness (e.g. (Feldman et al. 2010; Semple 2010)).”
From The process-outcome mindfulness effects in trainees (PrOMET) study: Protocol of a pragmatic randomized controlled trial (2015) · cites this paper as Feldman et al. 2010
Most studies applied progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) as an active control group.
“Most studies applied progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) as an active control group and demonstrated the beneficial effects of mindfulness (e.g. (Feldman et al. 2010; Semple 2010)).”
From The process-outcome mindfulness effects in trainees (PrOMET) study: Protocol of a pragmatic randomized controlled trial (2015) · cites this paper as Feldman et al. 2010
Most of these studies applied PMR as an active control group and demonstrated beneficial effects of mindfulness.
“Most of these studies applied PMR as an active control group and demonstrated beneficial effects of mindfulness (e.g. Feldman et al. 2010; Semple 2010).”
From The process-outcome mindfulness effects in trainees (PrOMET) study: Protocol of a pragmatic randomized controlled trial (2015) · cites this paper as Feldman et al. 2010
In novice meditators, decentering increased directly after brief mindful breathing compared with muscle relaxation and loving-kindness meditation.
“in a sample of novice meditators, researchers have found decentering to increase directly following brief mindful breathing compared to two other stress-reduction techniques (muscle relaxation and loving-kindness meditation; Feldman, Greeson, & Senville, 2010)”
From Five Facets of Mindfulness and Psychological Health: Evaluating a Psychological Model of the Mechanisms of Mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as Feldman, Greeson, & Senville, 2010
A brief 15-minute mindfulness induction reduces emotional reactivity to repetitive thoughts in college students.
“a brief 15-minute mindfulness induction helped to reduce emotional reactivity to repetitive thoughts in college students (Feldman, Greeson, & Senville, 2010).”
From Dispositional Mindfulness Uncouples Physiological and Emotional Reactivity to a Laboratory Stressor and Emotional Reactivity to Executive Functioning Lapses in Daily Life (2016) · cites this paper as Feldman, Greeson, & Senville, 2010
Earlier studies of undergraduates at the same institution suggest that regular formal meditation is relatively uncommon in unselected samples; in one such study only 4.8% reported meditating daily.
“Prior studies conducted with undergraduate students at the institution where the present studies were conducted suggest that regular formal meditation practice in an unselected sample may be relatively rare (e.g., in Feldman et al., 2010, only 4.8% of participants reported meditating daily).”
From Dispositional Mindfulness Uncouples Physiological and Emotional Reactivity to a Laboratory Stressor and Emotional Reactivity to Executive Functioning Lapses in Daily Life (2016) · cites this paper as Feldman et al., 2010
Mindfulness-based interventions are particularly effective for managing stressors and enhancing positive emotions, resulting in psychological and social benefits and reducing depression symptoms.
“Mindfulness-based interventions are particularly effective for managing stressors and enhancing positive emotions, resulting in psychological and social benefits and reducing depression symptoms [31-35].”
From MoodHacker Mobile Web App With Email for Adults to Self-Manage Mild-to-Moderate Depression: Randomized Controlled Trial (2016) · cites this paper as [35]
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- Authors
- Feldman, G., Greeson, J., & Senville, J.
- Affiliations
- Simmons University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Feldman, Greg
- ORCID
- Feldman, Greg
- Venue
- Behaviour Research and Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-10
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1002-1011
- ISSN
- 0005-7967 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2932656
- OpenAlex
- W2156039263
- Cited by
- 455
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 21.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Behaviour Research and Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Rowan Digitals Works (Rowan University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Center for Complementary & Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (K99 AT004945)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
- Keywords
- mindful breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, loving-kindness meditation, decentering, repetitive thinking, stress management strategies, mindfulness meditation, novice meditators
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Attention, Awareness, Breathing Exercises, Empathy, Female, Humans, Love, Relaxation Therapy, Self-Assessment, Self Care, Thinking, Meditation, Mind-Body Relations, Metaphysical, Resilience, Psychological, Young Adult
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