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Cited by 1,132Human Behavior and MotivationEvolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorMotivation and Self-Concept in Sports

Renovating the Pyramid of Needs: Contemporary Extensions Built Upon Ancient Foundations

Open access
Kenrick, Douglas T., Griskevicius, Vladas, Neuberg, Steven L., Schaller, Mark·2010·Perspectives on Psychological Science
DOI 10.1177/1745691610369469PMC PMC3161123
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Abstract

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, proposed in 1943, has been one of the most cognitively contagious ideas in the behavioral sciences. Anticipating later evolutionary views of human motivation and cognition, Maslow viewed human motives as based in innate and universal predispositions. We revisit the idea of a motivational hierarchy in light of theoretical developments at the interface of evolutionary biology, anthropology, and psychology. After considering motives at three different levels of analysis, we argue that the basic foundational structure of the pyramid is worth preserving, but that it should be buttressed with a few architectural extensions. By adding a contemporary design feature, connections between fundamental motives and immediate situational threats and opportunities should be highlighted. By incorporating a classical element, these connections can be strengthened by anchoring the hierarchy of human motives more firmly in the bedrock of modern evolutionary theory. We propose a renovated hierarchy of fundamental motives that serves as both an integrative framework and a generative foundation for future empirical research.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper proposes a renovated version of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, analyzing human motives at evolutionary functional, developmental, and proximate levels. It retains the foundational hierarchy but adds reproductive motives, depicts motives as overlapping rather than stacked, and treats self-actualization as subsumed within status and mating-related goals.

Key findings

  • A functional evolutionary analysis supports distinct motivational systems for physiological needs, self-protection, affiliation, and esteem/status, but argues that mating should be a separate category and that belongingness should be split into romantic love, friendship, and kin care. Self-actualization is not considered a functionally distinct need and is instead subsumed under status and mating motives.
  • A developmental life-history analysis adds three reproductive goals to the hierarchy: mate acquisition, mate retention, and parenting. Later-developing motives do not replace earlier ones; the revised pyramid uses overlapping triangles to show that earlier motives remain available throughout life.
  • At the proximate level, motivational priorities shift with immediate ecological cues and individual differences. Examples include darkness increasing startle responses and outgroup threat perceptions, mating motives increasing male risk-taking/display/aggression and reducing male conformity while increasing female conformity, and sex differences linked to differential parental investment.
  • The paper notes that in more than 90% of mammalian species males contribute little beyond sperm, while human females can produce offspring over up to three decades and males potentially longer; these life-history patterns inform the revised hierarchy.

Methods

  • Theoretical and conceptual review; no new empirical data were collected.
  • Integrates literature from evolutionary biology, anthropology, and psychology, considering motives at three levels: ultimate evolutionary function, developmental sequencing, and proximate cognitive priority.
  • Uses life-history theory and comparative evolutionary evidence to revise Maslow’s pyramid and proposes the renovated hierarchy as an integrative framework and source of future hypotheses.

Limitations

  • Stated: The authors say much of the proposal remains speculative, is not presented as final answers, and generates many unanswered empirical questions, including how motivational hierarchies differ by sex, ecological factors, parental/grandparent status, and situational triggers.
  • Stated: They note they cannot review the immense motivation literature or all post-Maslow theoretical views, limiting the scope of the integration.
  • Evident: The paper relies on selective synthesis and illustrative examples rather than new data; claims about self-actualization as a byproduct or as subsumed under status/mating are framed as possibilities requiring further empirical testing.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/1745691610369469

Cites

201 of 201 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 145 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Interpretationreasoning

    Successful reproduction involves many subsidiary goals beyond sexual satisfaction.

    “Successful reproduction involves a great deal more than accomplishing a goal of sexual satisfaction. In the service of reproduction, an animal must accomplish many subsidiary goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Striving for a transcendent state of self-actualization does not necessarily involve a conscious desire to convert transcendence into tangible resources.

    “Nor does it imply that striving for a transcendent state of self-actualization involves any conscious desire to transform transcendence into tangible resources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The motives that govern behavioral strivings often lie outside conscious awareness, as do the functional implications of those strivings.
  • Interpretationcitation

    When the risk of physical damage is highly costly, threat-avoidance systems are likely to favor false positive alarms over false negative complacency.

    “When the risk of physical damage is highly costly, threat-avoidance systems are likely to be set like smoke alarms, favoring false positive alarms rather than false negative complacency”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Haselton & Nettle, 2006

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    • cites Nesse, 2005

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    • cites Rozin & Royzman, 2001

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  • Premisenone given

    Evidence suggests independent motivational systems designed to deal with different functional threats and opportunities, supporting Maslow's distinctions between central motives in a reframed and expanded fashion.

    “There is also evidence suggesting independent motivational systems designed to deal with different functional threats and opportunities, thus supporting Maslow’s distinctions between central motives, albeit in a slightly reframed and expanded fashion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    The functional advantages of self-actualization may be identical to those of esteem/status or mating-related needs.

    “The functional benefits associated with self-actualization may be no different from those associated with esteem/status or mating-related needs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 65
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 35

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Maslow's hierarchy reflected both cognitive priority, in which some motives take precedence, and developmental priority, in which priorities shift from lower to higher as a person matures.

    “In addition to suggesting that some motives take cognitive priority over others, Maslow’s scheme also assumed that an individual’s priorities shifted from lower to higher in the hierarchy as the person matured.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maslow (1943, 1970)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Maslow proposed that there are multiple independent fundamental motivational systems and that these motives form a hierarchy in which some motives have priority over others.

    “At the core of Maslow’s theory of motivation are two important ideas: (a) there are multiple and independent fundamental motivational systems and (b) these motives form a hierarchy in which some motives have priority over others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maslow (1943, 1970)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Harlow's research showed that rhesus monkeys raised in isolation preferred a soft surrogate mother even when fed at a wire surrogate, demonstrating that contact comfort motivation is independent of hunger conditioning.

    “rhesus monkeys raised in isolation came to prefer contact with a soft, cuddly surrogate mother, even when they were fed exclusively at a nearby wire surrogate”
    • Also stated in: § Multiple Fundamental Motivational Systems · boosted
      “Harlow’s work demonstrated that the motivation to obtain contact comfort was independent of conditioning experiences with hunger satisfaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Harlow & Zimmerman, 1959

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Maslow proposed a universal set of distinct motives related to physiology, safety, affection, esteem, and self-actualization.

    “He presumed a universal set of distinct motives related to physiology, safety, affection, esteem, and self-actualization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maslow (1943, 1970)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Research supports multiple motivational and learning systems, with food preferences, aversions, fears, and other motivations operating by different rules and sometimes controlled by distinct brain areas.

    “Research since that time has lent support to the notion of multiple motivational and learning systems, showing that systems controlling human food preferences, food aversions, fears, and other motivations operate using different rules and that they are sometimes controlled by architecturally distinct areas of the brain”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Barrett & Kurzban, 2006

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    • cites Cosmides & Tooby, 1992

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    • cites Garcia & Koelling, 1966

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Humans have unique motivational systems for dealing with threats, including rapid learning of associations for ancestrally threatening stimuli and attentional systems attuned to angry expressions, particularly on unfamiliar males.

    “Later research supports the suggestion that human beings have unique motivational systems for dealing with threats. These systems include rapid learning of associations for stimuli that would likely have threatened our ancestors, as well as attentional systems attuned to angry expressions, particularly on the faces of unfamiliar males, who would have posed an especially great threat”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ackerman et al., 2006

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    • cites Becker, Kenrick, Neuberg, Blackwell, & Smith, 2007

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    • cites Öhman & Mineka, 2001

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Different adaptive problems often require different, and often incompatible, solutions that can be better solved by independent motivational and cognitive systems.

    “Different problems often require different, and often incompatible, solutions, which can often be better solved by independent motivational and cognitive systems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Gifted artists, musicians, and writers often display their creative work and may gain high fame, resources, and romantic interest as a result.

    “Talented artists, musicians, or writers frequently show off their creative outputs to others and may receive very high levels of fame, resources, and romantic interest as a result.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    At the proximate level, there is a continual dynamic interplay between motivational systems, cognitive appraisals, and environmental threats and opportunities.

    “At the proximate level of analysis, this integrative approach emphasizes that there is a continual dynamic interplay between motivational systems, cognitive appraisals, and environmental threats and opportunities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Physiological cravings are designed to be adaptive and involve specific environmental tuning, but they are unlikely to have been learned by simple classical conditioning or to be the product of conscious computation.

    “The bottom line of these findings is that physiological cravings are designed to be adaptive and involve specific environmental tuning, but they are unlikely to have been learned according to simple processes such as classical conditioning or to be the product of conscious computation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Motivational hierarchies should be analyzed at three levels: evolutionary function, developmental sequencing, and current cognitive priority (the proximate level).

    “we will consider motivational hierarchies at three levels of analysis: evolutionary function, developmental sequencing, and current cognitive priority (the proximate level).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Self-actualization can serve as an alternative route to esteem and social status, and therefore has indirect consequences for mating and reproductive fitness.

    “Self-actualization, in this light, can provide an alternative pathway to esteem and to social status and, consequently, has indirect implications for successful mating and reproductive fitness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Humans are exquisitely sensitive to cues of social rejection and respond to such cues using some of the same neural circuits used to register physical pain.

    “However, human beings are exquisitely sensitive to cues of social rejection, and they respond to such cues using some of the same neural circuits used to register physical pain”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Eisenberger, Lieberman, & Williams, 2003

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    • cites MacDonald & Leary, 2005

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Cognitive and developmental priorities may not overlap perfectly, so the developmental hierarchy need not correspond precisely to the cognitive hierarchy.

    “But cognitive and developmental priorities may not, in fact, overlap perfectly.”
    • Also stated in: § Motivational Hierarchies at Multiple Levels of Analysis · hedged
      “Hence, the developmental hierarchy need not correspond precisely to the cognitive hierarchy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Males are more likely than females to publicly call attention to their creativity, and females tend to choose creative men as mates.

    “For example, males are more likely to publicly draw attention to their creativity than are females, and females are likely to choose creative men as mates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miller (2000)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rats and quail both condition aversions to foods followed by nausea, but rats condition aversions more readily to gustatory cues while quail condition aversions more readily to visual cues.

    “For example, Wilcoxon et al. (1971) found that both rats and quail condition aversions to foods that are followed by nausea. Whereas rats condition aversion to gustatory rather than visual cues associated with the novel foods, quail do the reverse, conditioning aversion more readily to visual cues rather than gustatory cues.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilcoxon et al. (1971)

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sexual motivation is functionally distinct from basic survival needs such as hunger and should be moved to a different position in the hierarchy.

    “In what follows, we suggest that sexual motivation should be treated distinctly from basic survival needs such as hunger and moved to a different position in the hierarchy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Promoting inclusive fitness requires pursuing many other goals that contribute indirectly to survival and reproductive success.

    “However, promoting the ultimate goal of inclusive fitness also requires the pursuit of many other goals that contribute indirectly to survival and reproductive success.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Inclusive fitness underlies all evolved mechanisms, including innate systems that contribute to survival and reproductive success.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Social affiliation appears to be a fundamental motive, as Maslow proposed.

    “Although social affiliation appears to be a fundamental motive, as Maslow proposed, it is worth considering some important differences among the various forms of affiliation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Maslow proposed self-actualization as the top goal, becoming a priority only after all other needs are satisfied.

    “Maslow also proposed that the goal at the top of the hierarchy is self-actualization—fulfilling one’s creative potential.”
    • Also stated in: § Hierarchical Organization of Motives · plain
      “According to Maslow’s hierarchical approach, self-actualization only becomes a priority after all other needs are satisfied.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maslow (1943, 1970)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Males are often more willing to take social and physical risks to attain status, and this proclivity is enhanced when mating motives are salient.

    “This helps explain why males are often more willing to take social and physical risks to attain status, a proclivity that is enhanced when mating motives are salient”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Griskevicius, Goldstein, Mortensen, Cialdini, & Kenrick, 2006

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    • cites Griskevicius, Tybur, et al., 2009

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    • cites Wilson & Daly, 1985

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    There is reason to presume some degree of hierarchical relationship between functional motivational systems.

    “There is also reason to presume some degree of hierarchical relationship between functional motivational systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    An evolutionary approach implies that all behavior is goal-oriented, resulting from psychological adaptations designed by natural selection to deal with recurrent threats and opportunities.

    “At the broadest level, an evolutionary approach implies that all behavior is goal-oriented, resulting from psychological adaptations that were designed by natural selection to deal with recurrent threats and opportunities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Inclusive fitness underlies all evolved mechanisms, including innate systems that contribute to survival and reproductive success.
    • Rests on an assumption: All living organisms have been selected to promote their inclusive fitness, meaning relative success at passing genes into future generations through direct reproduction or helping kin reproduce.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Miller (2000) reviews a large literature arguing that human creative displays follow many of the same rules as sexually selected displays in other animals.

    “Miller (2000) reviews an extensive body of literature to make a case that creative displays in humans follow many of the same rules of sexually selected displays in other animals, such as peacocks’ tails.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miller (2000)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The pursuit of one's unique talents, while experienced as distinct from esteem pursuit, is rooted in a shared motivational system and yields functionally identical outcomes.

    “We suggest that, although the pursuit of one’s unique talents may be experienced as distinct from the pursuit of esteem, these phenomenologically distinct pursuits are rooted in a common motivational system and produce functionally identical outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    At the functional level, there is a natural hierarchical relationship between survival and reproductive goals, with survival goals undergirding reproductive goals.

    “Considered at the level of evolutionary function, there is a natural hierarchical relationship between survival and reproductive goals, with survival goals undergirding reproductive goals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Inclusive fitness underlies all evolved mechanisms, including innate systems that contribute to survival and reproductive success.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Reproduction is the ultimate goal of these trade-offs, but successful reproduction involves multiple goals.

    “reproduction is the ultimate goal of such trade-offs, but successful reproduction involves multiple goals”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Unequal parental investment connects to sexual selection: female mammals are usually choosier, favoring males that dominate rivals or signal health and development.

    “This difference in parental investment is linked in turn to differences in sexual selection, with female mammals tending to be more selective in choosing mates, generally picking males who have established their superiority by dominating other males or who exhibit traits suggesting relatively greater health and development.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Maslow's belongingness category actually comprises separate needs for romantic love, affiliation, and familial care, which should be considered independently.

    “Second, what Maslow called belongingness is comprised of the different needs of romantic love, affiliation, and familial care, which ought to be considered separately.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Life histories are commonly divided into somatic effort and reproductive effort.

    “Life histories are commonly divided into two broad categories: somatic effort and reproductive effort (Alexander, 1987).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Alexander, 1987

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Adult mammals divide current resources among somatic effort, attracting and keeping mates, and caring for offspring.

    “For example, adult mammals divide current resources between somatic effort (eating, drinking, and protecting themselves), attracting and keeping mates, and caring for offspring.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Men usually become sexually mature considerably later than women and grow somewhat larger.

    “In line with this general rule, human males typically reach sexual maturity much later than females and attain a somewhat larger size.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Mating-strategy differences often track ecological conditions, and several such conditions matter across many species.

    “Third, those differences in mating strategies are often systematically linked to ecological factors, and many of the same ecological factors (e.g., sex ratio, mortality levels, distribution of resources) are important across species.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    There is broad biological support for the idea that motivational priorities change with development.

    “there is broad biological support for the idea that motivational priorities change with development”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Life-history evolution studies how each animal's life cycle is shaped by natural selection to facilitate reproductive success.

    “The field of life-history evolution explores how each animal’s life cycle—from conception to death—is shaped by natural selection to facilitate reproductive success (Stearns et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stearns et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In many species, the two sexes often divide resources differently between bodily growth and reproduction.

    “First, across many species, it is common for males and females to differ in how they allocate resources to somatic development and reproductive effort.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Whether a trade-off is favorable depends on dynamic interactions among environmental pressures, inherited predispositions, and the animal's developmental stage.

    “What constitutes a favorable or unfavorable trade-off depends on a dynamic interaction of environmental pressures (current threats and opportunities), inherited predispositions (useful traits and constraining traits the animal inherited), and the animal’s current stage of development.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This basic hierarchy explains part of human development, yet it has at least two major shortcomings.

    “That simple hierarchy does capture some of human development, but it falls short in at least two important ways.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    People with an unrestricted mating orientation pay more attention to attractive opposite-sex faces, but this link appears only in male perceivers.

    “For instance, an unrestricted mating orientation is associated with greater attention to attractive opposite-sex faces but, predictably, this effect is specific to male perceivers (e.g., Duncan et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Duncan et al., 2007

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Somatic efforts provide the necessary developmental base before mating efforts can occur, and parenting efforts build on earlier somatic and mating efforts.

    “Somatic efforts form the necessary developmental base required before mating efforts can unfold, and parenting efforts build on the base of earlier somatic and mating efforts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    A male can in principle provide only sperm, and over nine in ten mammal species follow that pattern.

    “Males could, in theory, contribute little more than sperm to the offspring, which is the typical pattern for more than 90% of mammalian species.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Because resources are inherently finite, time and energy spent on one activity must be taken from others.

    “Given that resources are inherently finite, time and energy invested in one activity must be taken from others.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Resources are always limited.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Biological theorists have developed life-history theory, which has profound implications for the developmental sequencing of human motivation.

    “Biological theorists have developed a powerful set of ideas called life-history theory that have profound implications for the developmental sequencing of human motivation (e.g., Kaplan & Gangestad, 2005; Kenrick & Keefe, 1992; Kenrick & Luce, 2000; Stearns et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Kaplan & Gangestad, 2005

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    • cites Kenrick & Keefe, 1992

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    • cites Kenrick & Luce, 2000

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Reproductive effort can be further divided into mating, parental care, and investment in other relatives.

    “Reproductive effort can be further divided into mating, parental care, and investment in other relatives (Alexander, 1987).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Alexander, 1987

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Life-history theory suggests there are likely important individual differences in motivational priorities, some linked to gender and others to within-sex strategy variations from developmental environment interactions.

    “Life-history theory also suggests that there are likely to be important individual differences in motivational priorities—some linked to gender and others linked to within-sex variations in strategies emerging from interactions with the developmental environment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although ecology and culture shape whether people favor restricted or unrestricted mating, men everywhere lean more toward unrestricted mating.

    “Ecological and cultural factors also influence tendencies toward restricted or unrestricted mating, but men are universally more inclined toward unrestrictedness (Schmitt, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmitt, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    From around age eight, insecure girls shift toward an anxious/ambivalent attachment pattern, while insecure boys become avoidant.

    “Beginning at about 8 years old, females with insecure attachment styles move to an anxious/ambivalent style, whereas insecure males become avoidant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The aim of reproduction is to produce viable offspring successfully, and this need not be achieved by maximizing offspring number and speed.

    “The answer is that the goal is the successful production of viable offspring, which may not follow from the production of as many offspring as possible as quickly as possible.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Attachment style is connected to mating tactic, implying that attachment patterns differ between men and women.

    “Mating strategies are linked to attachment styles, suggesting that attachment takes different forms for males and females.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Human mating tactics also vary within each sex; men and women differ in courtship and parental investment along different developmental paths.

    “There are also within-sex variations in human mating strategies, with both men and women varying in their courtship strategies and degree of parental effort in ways that are linked to different developmental trajectories (Belsky, Steinberg, & Draper, 1991; Gangestad & Simpson, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Belsky, Steinberg, & Draper, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gangestad & Simpson, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Within a single sex, individuals often follow different mating tactics, producing systematic variation tied to those tactics.

    “Second, not all members of one sex adopt the same strategy; there are often systematic individual differences within a sex linked to different mating strategies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Investment in other relatives counts as reproductive effort because grandchildren, siblings, nieces, nephews, or cousins share common genes.

    “Investment in other relatives is considered reproductive effort because grandchildren, siblings, nieces, nephews, or cousins share common genes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Even socially successful college students stay highly attuned to acceptance and rejection, and rejection activates some of the same bodily systems as physical pain.

    “Adults, even attractive and well-connected college students, remain exquisitely sensitive to social acceptance and social rejection, and they experience the latter using some of the same physiological mechanisms used to register pain (MacDonald & Leary, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites MacDonald & Leary, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Adults always have several motivational systems available, and life-history factors can make some more readily activated than others.

    “Our review thus far suggests that adult humans always have multiple motivational systems at the ready and that (depending on life-history considerations) some of these motives may be more ready than others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Chronic activation of mating motives varies between sexes and among individuals within a sex.

    “Similarly, the chronic activation of mating motives also varies considerably, not just between sexes but between individuals of any particular sex.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Motivational priorities can be highly sensitive to immediate contextual cues.

    “Motivational priorities may be extraordinarily sensitive to immediate contextual cues.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    At this time, women tend to avoid foods with high toxin levels, such as bitter vegetables, and foods likely to carry dangerous bacteria, such as fish and meat.

    “Women during this period are most likely to avoid foods that contain high levels of toxins (e.g., bitter vegetables) or which are likely to carry dangerous bacteria (e.g., fish and meats).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fessler et al., 2005; Profet, 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    When cues imply perceivers are especially vulnerable to harm, they may show stronger startle responses and be more likely to ascribe stereotypically dangerous traits to ethnic outgroups.

    “If these cues imply that perceivers are especially vulnerable to harm, for instance, then those perceivers may show especially strong startle responses and may be especially likely to ascribe stereotypically dangerous traits to ethnic outgroups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The revised hierarchy places the three reproductive motives in developmental order: children do not seek mates, and after puberty keeping a partner or raising children only matters after a mate has been attracted.

    “Our revised hierarchy adds the three reproductive goals following this developmental line of reasoning: Young children do not seek mates at all and, after puberty, maintaining a mating relationship or caring for offspring do not become issues until one has first attracted a mate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Infants are concerned with obtaining food and liquids and are unconcerned with making friends until after the toddler stage.
    • Rests on an assumption: Concerns about esteem in others' eyes only make sense after a network of associates exists to impress.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Genetic and epigenetic factors influence chronic anxiety and thus chronic prioritization of self-protective goals.

    “Both genetic and epigenetic (i.e., developmental) factors influence the extent to which an individual is chronically anxious, for instance, and therefore places a chronically high priority on self-protective goals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Danger cues trigger self-protective motives most strongly in people who chronically perceive themselves as vulnerable, and less in those who perceive themselves as invulnerable.

    “Contextual cues connoting vulnerability to danger are likely to trigger self-protective motives most strongly among individuals who chronically perceive themselves to be vulnerable, but they are less likely to do so among individuals who, for whatever reason, perceive themselves to be invulnerable to harm.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In healthy adults, earlier needs persist and can be reactivated by threats or opportunities, although they share time with later needs and may be satisfied more automatically.

    “Although earlier developed needs must necessarily share time with those that come later, and although their satisfaction may occur more automatically, they do not disappear in healthy, well-functioning adults but instead remain available to respond as relevant threats and opportunities arise.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Activating a motivational system can yield benefits but also carries possible fitness costs.

    “The activation of a particular motivational system may produce specific kinds of benefits (e.g., activation of a self-protective goal is likely to precipitate the strategic avoidance of potentially dangerous people), but it also may entail specific potential fitness costs as well (e.g., halting consumption of caloric resources, temporary cessation of behavior promoting reproduction).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Food likes and dislikes in pregnant women appear while the fetus is forming major organs and is especially vulnerable to toxins and infection.

    “Pregnant women’s particular food preferences and aversions occur during the period when the fetus is developing its major organ systems and is highly sensitive to the influence of extrinsic toxins and infection.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fessler et al., 2005; Profet, 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Activating a mating goal increases conformity in women but reduces conformity in men, who seek to stand out.

    “In contrast, activation of a mating goal enhances conformity among women but actually leads to a reduction in conformity among men, who seek to stand out under these conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Being in the dark makes people feel especially vulnerable to harm, which prioritizes self-protective motives.

    “When temporarily deprived of visual cues—when in the dark—we feel especially vulnerable to harm. Consequently, self-protective motives are prioritized.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Humans depend substantially on visual perception to maneuver safely through the environment.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rather than a disease, pregnancy sickness correlates with improved fetal health and fewer miscarriages.

    “Rather than being a pathology, pregnancy illness is associated with better fetal health and lower rates of spontaneous abortion (Fessler et al., 2005; Profet, 1992).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fessler et al., 2005; Profet, 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tribes that use alkali in corn preparation consume much more corn than other groups, without knowing the biochemistry, because they find it tastes better.

    “Native American tribes whose corn preparation involves alkali eat substantially more corn than the other groups, although they are unaware of the underlying biochemistry—they simply regard corn prepared with alkali as better tasting (Katz et al., 1974).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Katz et al., 1974

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    From a life-history view, developing organisms must reorder their priorities: bodily maintenance comes before mating, and mating before parenting.

    “A life-history perspective on development certainly supports the basic idea that organisms must change the order of goal priorities as they develop: Some amount of somatic effort necessarily precedes mating effort, which necessarily precedes parenting effort.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Infants are concerned with obtaining food and liquids and are unconcerned with making friends until after the toddler stage.
    • Rests on an assumption: Concerns about esteem in others' eyes only make sense after a network of associates exists to impress.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The number of motives depends on whether one asks about cognitively separable goals (many) or motivational systems (fewer).

    “The answer to this question no doubt depends on whether one is asking about cognitively separable goals (in which case, there are lots of them) or motivational systems (in which case, there are fewer).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Deprivation of higher needs is not fatal but can become relevant to activation.

    “And although deprivation of such needs is not fatal, it can certainly become relevant to activation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Goals relevant to self-actualization are more sensibly subsumed within other, more functionally defensible motivational categories.

    “In contrast, however, goals relevant to self-actualization are perhaps more sensibly subsumed within other, more functionally defensible motivational categories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The self-protection system's motivational states are likely anxiety or fear, and its likely responses include flight, freezing, or fight depending on trade-off analysis.

    “The motivational states most likely to be activated by such stimuli are those linked to anxiety or fear, and the likely responses include flight, freezing, or fight (depending on analysis of various trade-offs inherent in the particular threat and one’s own characteristics and current surroundings).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Any motivational system includes a template for recognizing relevant threats or opportunities, inner motivational and physiological states, cognitive decision rules for trade-offs, and a set of responses to achieve adaptive goals.

    “On that view, any motivational system includes (a) a template for recognizing a particular class of relevant environmental threats or opportunities, (b) inner motivational/ physiological states designed to mobilize relevant resources, (c) cognitive decision rules designed to analyze trade-offs inherent in various prepotent responses, and (d) a set of responses designed to respond to threats or”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Plutchik (1980)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Scott (1980)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Carver and Scheier’s (1998)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Men are selective about long-term mate characteristics but do not tend to select mates based on relative competitive success.

    “Men are also selective about the characteristics they desire in long-term mates (in whom they will make potentially high investments), but men don’t tend to select mates based on their mate’s relative competitive success.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin, testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen have been linked to affiliation, parental care, status seeking, and mate choice.

    “For example, oxytocin, testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen have been linked to affiliation, parental care, status seeking, and mate choice in various ways (e.g., Brown & Brown, 2006; Durante et al., 2008; Gangestad, Garver-Apgar, Simpson, & Cousins, 2007; McIntyre et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brown & Brown, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Durante et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gangestad, Garver-Apgar, Simpson, & Cousins, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Higher or psychological needs are not typically deficit driven but likely have important physiological correlates.

    “Nonetheless, although higher or psychological needs are not typically deficit driven, they are likely to have important and revealing physiological correlates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Maslow (1970) conducted a study of individuals he characterized as self-actualized.

    “Maslow (1970) studied a group of people he described as self-actualized.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maslow, 1970

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Behaviors, feelings, and decision rules for making a mate happy differ from those for defending against infidelity, and those for making friends differ from those for catching cheaters.

    “Moreover, the behaviors, feelings, and decision rules involved in making one’s mate happy are different than those involved in defending against infidelity and those involved in making friends are different from those involved in catching cheaters on social contracts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    An enhanced mating motive leads men to mistakenly perceive sexual arousal in attractive women's faces, with no reciprocal effect in women.

    “And, as noted earlier, an enhanced mating motive leads men to mistakenly perceive sexual arousal in the faces of attractive women, but no such reciprocal effect emerges among women (Maner et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maner et al., 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Women are generally expected to devote less time and energy to mating effort and more to parenting effort, consistent with sex differences in offspring care and lower advantages from multiple mates.

    “Consistent with the sex difference in offspring care across societies and with the relatively lower advantages that females gain from acquiring multiple mates, women are generally expected to devote less time and energy to mating effort and more time and energy to parenting effort.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Men prefer long-term mates with physical cues of youth and fertility and traits like kindness and warmth indicating parenting ability.

    “Instead, men prefer mates who show physical cues associated with youth and fertility and who demonstrate traits (such as kindness and warmth) indicative of successful parenting ability (e.g., Griskevicius et al., 2007; Li & Kenrick, 2006; Singh, 1993; Zaadstra et al., 1993).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Griskevicius et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Li & Kenrick, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Singh, 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Men are expected to be motivated by esteem needs somewhat more than women and to have self-esteem more strongly linked to intrasexual competitive success.

    “Hence, men are expected to be motivated by esteem needs to a somewhat greater degree than women and to have their sense of self-esteem more strongly linked to intra-sexual competitive success.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When mating motives are activated, males are especially likely to show off by becoming more creative, conspicuously consuming, desiring higher-paying jobs, and preferring money now over later.

    “Indeed, when mating motives are activated, males are especially likely to show off in various ways—to become more creative, to conspicuously consume expensive goods, to desire higher paying jobs, and to opt for money now rather than later (e.g., Griskevicius, Goldstein, et al., 2006; Griskevicius et al., 2007; Roney, 2003; Wilson & Daly, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Griskevicius, Goldstein, et al., 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Griskevicius et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Roney, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The self-protection management system is triggered by threats such as unfamiliar, dissimilar angry males in unfamiliar surroundings or the dark.

    “As noted in Table 1, this motivational system is triggered by various threats, such as the presence of unfamiliar, dissimilar angry males encountered in unfamiliar surroundings or the dark.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The perspective implies important individual differences in motivational hierarchies linked to ecological factors, gender, mating strategy, and life-history phase.

    “This perspective implies important individual differences in motivational hierarchies, linked to ecological factors, gender, mating strategy, and life-history phase.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Maslow's self-actualized subjects displayed the core motivation of self-actualization: striving to excel in their own unique area of expertise.

    “Besides manifesting the central feature of self-actualization motivation—striving to excel in their own unique area of expertise—these individuals also manifested a number of other characteristics Maslow viewed as highly desirable, including self-acceptance, independent thinking, a problem-solving orientation, an ability to form deep friendships, and a lack of prejudice.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maslow, 1970

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Women are generally less interested in casual mating opportunities, while men generally have a lower threshold for initiating sexual interest.

    “Women are generally less interested in casual mating opportunities, whereas men generally have a lower threshold for initiating sexual interest (e.g., Buss & Schmitt, 1993; Clark & Hatfield, 1989; Haselton & Buss, 2000; Kenrick et al., 1990, 1993; Schmitt, 2003, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Buss & Schmitt, 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Clark & Hatfield, 1989

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Haselton & Buss, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Some individual differences in environmental response depend on developmental sensitization experiences.

    “Some individual differences in response to the environment depend upon developmental sensitization experiences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The intellectual capacities and social skills of highly functioning individuals would be expected to translate into benefits for themselves and their relatives.

    “Their intellectual capacities and social skills would also be expected to translate into benefits for themselves and their relatives.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The suggestion that higher strivings stem from earlier motivational processes resonates with and substantiates Maslow's speculations.

    “This sort of suggestion resonates with—and sub-stantiates—idiosyncratic speculations in Maslow’s own work”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maslow, 1943

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Motive systems that develop later do not completely supplant earlier ones; they persist alongside them, available for activation by current environmental opportunities and threats, interacting with individual differences.

    “A consideration of life-history trade-offs also implies that later developing motive systems never fully replace earlier ones and that they continue to coexist, ready to be activated depending on current opportunities and threats in the environment, in interaction with individual differences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Inclinations underlying strivings for higher goals are likely to be maintained within one's lifetime and across generations by adaptive consequences.

    “only to suggest that any inclinations underlying such strivings are likely to be maintained within one’s lifetime, and across generations, by adaptive consequences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Highly functioning self-actualized individuals are likely to be attractive as mates.

    “but it certainly seems likely that they would be attractive as mates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Human reproduction is not ultimately aimed at self-gratification; it entails a substantial redirection of resources from selfish goals toward other people in social networks.

    “Reproduction for humans is not ultimately about self-gratification, but involves a considerable diversion of resources away from selfish goals and toward other human beings in our social networks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
95 of 95

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Early developing motives are unlikely to be fully replaced by later goals but instead continue to be important throughout life, depending on individual differences and proximate ecological cues.

    “This change explicitly reflects the assumption that early developing motives are unlikely to be fully replaced by later goals but instead continue to be important throughout life, depending on individual differences and proximate ecological cues.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Inclusive fitness underlies all evolved mechanisms, including innate systems that contribute to survival and reproductive success.

    “Inclusive fitness is presumed to underlie all evolved mechanisms, including any innate systems that contribute to an animal’s survival and ultimate reproductive success.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    All living organisms have been selected to promote their inclusive fitness, meaning relative success at passing genes into future generations through direct reproduction or helping kin reproduce.

    “evolutionary biologists presume that all living organisms have been selected to promote their inclusive fitness, which means their relative success at passing genes into future generations via either direct reproduction or helping kin reproduce.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The motives that govern behavioral strivings often lie outside conscious awareness, as do the functional implications of those strivings.

    “The motives that govern behavioral strivings often lie outside of conscious awareness, as do the functional implications of those strivings.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Resources are always limited.

    “Life-history models assume that resources are always limited and that development involves trade-offs in when and how to allocate those scarce resources.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Development involves trade-offs in when and how to allocate scarce resources.

    “Life-history models assume that resources are always limited and that development involves trade-offs in when and how to allocate those scarce resources.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Maslow viewed esteem mostly in terms of self-evaluation, putting opinions of others at the end of a list of terms like self-esteem.

    “For example, Maslow viewed esteem mostly in terms of self-evaluation, putting “opinions of others” at the end of a list of terms like self-esteem.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Maslow viewed self-actualization in very individualist terms, presuming that once one has attained the respect of others, one could move to a higher level by pursuing one's idiosyncratic goals.

    “In a related vein, Maslow viewed self-actualization in very individualist terms, presuming that once one has attained the respect of others, one could move to a “higher” level by pursuing one’s idiosyncratic goals.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Maslow's hierarchical theory of needs assumed that an individual's priorities shifted from lower to higher in the hierarchy as a person matured.

    “Maslow’s hierarchical theory of needs assumed that an individual’s priorities shifted from lower to higher in the hierarchy as a person matured.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Humans do not reach sexual maturity for more than a decade.

    “Humans do not sexually mature for over a decade, during which individuals not only develop physically but also learn social skills that enable them to form networks of friends and establish social positions within those networks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    During the pre-reproductive decade, humans learn social skills that allow them to form friendship networks and establish social positions within them.

    “Humans do not sexually mature for over a decade, during which individuals not only develop physically but also learn social skills that enable them to form networks of friends and establish social positions within those networks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Infants are concerned with obtaining food and liquids and are unconcerned with making friends until after the toddler stage.

    “Infants are concerned with getting food and liquids and unconcerned with making friends until they are beyond the toddler stage.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Concerns about esteem in others' eyes only make sense after a network of associates exists to impress.

    “Similarly, concerns about one’s esteem in the eyes of others only make sense after there is a network of associates to impress.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Humans are an iteroparous species.

    “Humans are clearly an iteroparous species, producing offspring over a period of up to three decades for females and potentially longer for males.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    All mammals, humans included, must keep their own bodies functioning to raise and care for their young.

    “Furthermore, unlike salmon, all mammals, including humans, must maintain their own bodies in order to nurture and care for their offspring.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    There is a continual interplay between motivational systems and the perception of fitness-relevant threats and opportunities in the immediate environment.

    “These and other lines of research (e.g., Ackerman et al., 2009; Neuberg, Kenrick, Maner, & Schaller, 2004; Van Vugt, De Cremer, & Jannsen, 2007; Van Vugt & Spisak, 2008) support the general assumption that there is a continual interplay between motivational systems and the perception of affordances (fitness-relevant threats and opportunities) in the immediate environment.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Humans depend substantially on visual perception to maneuver safely through the environment.

    “Humans depend substantially on visual perception to maneuver safely through the environment.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The individuals Maslow studied (e.g., Einstein, Roosevelt, Douglass) were highly accomplished and achieved very high status due to their intellectual capacities and social intelligence.

    “The individuals Maslow studied, such as Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass, no doubt were highly accomplished and achieved very high levels of status as a function of their intellectual capacities and social intelligence.”
18 of 18

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The motivation for social affiliation is distinct from motivations associated with sex, parenting, or dominance.

    “the motivation for social affiliative interactions is distinct from other types of social motivations –such as those associated with sex, parenting, or dominance– that result from more ancient pressures and evolved into functionally and psychologically different systems [43]”

    From The social motivation theory of autism (2012) · cites this paper as [43]

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 13

  1. Buss D.M., 1992, Psychological Science, 2, 204
  2. Daly M., 1988, Homicide
  3. Hill K., 1989, American Scientist, 77, 437
  4. Keltner D., 2006, Evolution and social psychology, 115
  5. Kenrick D.T., 2006, Psychology of love, 15
  6. Kenrick D.T., 1998, Handbook of evolutionary psychology, 485
  7. Lyubomirsky S., 2008, The how of happiness
  8. Martindale C., 1980, Review of personality & social psychology, 193
  9. Myers D.G., 2009, Psychology in everyday life
  10. Nakao K., 1987, Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 2, 523
  11. Park J.H., Frontiers in social motivation
  12. Van Vugt M., 2006, Evolution and social psychology, 237
  13. Warner R.R., 1984, American Scientist, 72, 128

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., & Schaller, M.
Affiliations
  • Arizona State University (US)
  • University of Minnesota (US)
  • University of British Columbia (CA)
Corresponding author
Kenrick, Douglas T.
ORCID
Venue
Perspectives on Psychological Science
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2010-05
Volume
5
Issue
3
Pages
292-314
ISSN
  • 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
  • 1745-6924
DOI
10.1177/1745691610369469
PMC
PMC3161123
OpenAlex
W2114116188
Cited by
1,132
References
201
Citations by year
2026: 74 · 2025: 94 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 86 · 2022: 91 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 79 · 2019: 108 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 62 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 58 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 52
FWCI
5.14
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH064734)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Behavior and Motivation
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
Keywords
Maslow's hierarchy of needs, fundamental motives, motives, innate predispositions, integrative framework

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-05.

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