Effects of deprivation on hedonics and reinforcing value of food
Abstract
Eating is influenced by both the hedonic preferences and reinforcing value of food. Incentive salience theory predicts these are separate influences. This study tested whether hedonics reliably change as a function of increasing the reinforcing value of food by deprivation in 17 non-obese, non-dietary restrained females. Baseline measures of hedonics for pleasant (chocolate milk), unpleasant (lemon juice) and neutral (water) tastes were determined under deprived conditions. Participants were then randomly assigned to fed or maintained in deprived conditions, and after food consumption, a second determination of hedonics was obtained, followed by assessing the reinforcing value of food. Hedonics was measured by subjective ratings and behavioral observations in a taste reactivity paradigm. Results showed food was more reinforcing for the deprived than the fed group, but no influences of group were observed for the subjective or objective hedonic measures. These results suggest that hedonics and the reinforcing value of food are separate processes in humans, and they may independently influence eating behavior.
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Humans randomized to periods of caloric deprivation work longer on operant tasks to earn high-calorie snack foods and eat more snack foods than non-deprived controls.
“humans randomized to periods of caloric deprivation work longer on operant tasks to earn high-calorie snack foods and eat more snack foods than non-deprived controls”
From Caloric deprivation increases responsivity of attention and reward brain regions to intake, anticipated intake, and images of palatable foods (2013) · cites this paper as Epstein et al., 2003
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“These ideas are supported by studies on food reinforcement showing that food deprivation increases food reinforcement and recent consumption of a food decreases its reinforcing value (5, 7).”
Relation of dietary restraint scores to cognitive biases and reward sensitivity
Ahern, A. L., Field, M., Yokum, S., Bohon, C., & Stice, E. M. (2010) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2010.04.001 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Disordered eating behaviors and cardiometabolic risk among young adults with overweight or obesity
Nagata, J. M., Garber, A. K., Tabler, J., Murray, S. B., Vittinghoff, E., & Bibbins-Domingo, K. B. (2018) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.22927 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Energy compensation in response to aerobic exercise training in overweight adults
Flack, K. D., Ufholz, K. E., Johnson, L. K., Fitzgerald, J. S., & Roemmich, J. N. (2018) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00071.2018 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Food reinforcement is a strong predictor of greater energy intake and weight status (16), and the reinforcing value of a food is a more robust predictor of food intake than the hedonic value (liking) of the food (17).”
BackgroundAssessing food appeal and desire to eat: the effects of portion size & energy density
Burger, K. S., Cornier, M. A., Ingebrigtsen, J. P., & Johnson, S. L. (2011) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-8-101 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Epstein and colleagues have shown that the depravation of food can selectively influence the willingness to work for food [14].”
BackgroundValidation of a questionnaire measure of the relative reinforcing value of food
Goldfield, G. S., Epstein, L. H., Davidson, M., & Saad, F. G. (2004) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.11.004 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Food reinforcement and obesity. Psychological moderators
Epstein, L. H., Lin, H. C., Carr, K. A., & Fletcher, K. D. (2011) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.025 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Martens, M. J. I., Born, J. R., Lemmens, S. G. T., Karhunen, L. J., Heinecke, A., Goebel, R., Adam, T. C., & Westerterp‐Plantenga, M. S. (2013) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.044024 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Salient nutrition labels increase the integration of health attributes in food decision-making
Enax, L., Krajbich, I. M., & Weber, B. (2016) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500004563 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“In line with previous studies (Hare et al., 2011; Maier et al., 2015), subjects were tested at varying times during the day but asked to fast four hours prior to the experiment to increase the value of food items (Epstein et al., 2003) and standardize hunger levels.”
Enax, L., Weber, B., Ahlers, M., Kaiser, U., Diethelm, K., Holtkamp, D., Faupel, U., Holzmüller, H. H., & Kersting, M. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00882 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Keywords: child marketing, reinforcing value, placebo effect, healthy food, nutritional requirements”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTesting the validity of implicit measures of wanting and liking
Tibboel, H., Houwer, J. D., Spruyt, A., Field, M., Kemps, E., & Crombez, G. (2011) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.01.002 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Trait Anticipatory Pleasure Predicts Effort Expenditure for Reward
Geaney, J. T., Treadway, M. T., & Smillie, L. D. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131357 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Consistent with the animal literature, human appetite research supports the dissociability of wanting and liking, especially in interaction with varying states of hunger and satiety [12,13].”
BackgroundDaily consumption of individual snack foods decreases their reinforcing value
Temple, J. L., Chappel, A. M., Shalik, J., Volcy, S., & Epstein, L. H. (2007) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.10.001 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Soussignan, R., Schaal, B., Boulanger, V., Gaillet, M., & Jiang, T. (2012) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.12.018 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Facial affective reactions to bitter-tasting foods and body mass index in adults
García‐Burgos, D., & Zamora, M. C. (2013) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2013.08.013 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Finlayson, G., & Dalton, M. (2011) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.10.011 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Burger, K. S., Sanders, A. J., & Gilbert, J. R. (2016) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.116.231431 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Participants in study 2 completed the Epstein Task progressive reinforcement paradigm (19).”
BackgroundRaynor, H. A., Steeves, E. A., Hecht, J., Fava, J. L., & Wing, R. R. (2012) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.031153 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Choice is relative: Reinforcing value of food and activity in obesity treatment.
Carr, K. A., & Epstein, L. H. (2020) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000521 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Food deprivation increases the reinforcing value of food, and food satiation can reduce its value (Epstein et al., 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialFood reinforcement partially mediates the effect of socioeconomic status on body mass index
Lin, H. C., Carr, K. A., Fletcher, K. D., & Epstein, L. H. (2013) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.20158 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“ing value of food in humans, we speculate that methods of reducing drug craving—such as extinguishing cue-reinforcer memories (33)— may be adapted to lower food reinforcement in obese individuals.”
Epstein, L. H., Paluch, R. A., Biondolillo, M. J., Stein, J. S., Quattrin, T., Mastrandrea, L. D., Gatchalian, K. M., Greenawald, M. H., & Bickel, W. K. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-021-00278-y · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Deprivation of these foods only increases their value (Epstein et al., 2003; Flack et al., 2019; Raynor & Epstein, 2003).”
BackgroundFrank, M. L., Flynn, A., Farnell, G., & Barkley, J. E. (2018) · Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness · doi:10.1016/j.jesf.2018.03.001 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Cameron, J. D., Goldfield, G. S., Riou, M.-È., Finlayson, G., Blundell, J. E., & Doucet, É. (2016) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.115584 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“, “wanting”) by increasing the RRVF in humans (46, 47), the current study is the first to our knowledge to examine how the modality of energy depletion affects RRVF.”
BackgroundHolland, J. C., Kolko, R. P., Stein, R. I., Welch, R. R., Perri, M. G., Schechtman, K. B., Saelens, B. E., Epstein, L. H., & Wilfley, D. E. (2014) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.20708 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“An overly restrictive approach, where the child is not allowed to make independent choices and parents make all foodrelated decisions, may increase the reinforcing value of “forbidden” foods (10,11), which has been associated with weight gain (12) and blunted response to weight loss treatment in children (13).”
BackgroundWeight Loss and Appetite Control in Women
Hintze, L. J., Mahmoodianfard, S., Auguste, C. B., & Doucet, É. (2017) · Current Obesity Reports · doi:10.1007/s13679-017-0273-8 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Valuing the Diversity of Research Methods to Advance Nutrition Science
Mattes, R. D., Rowe, S. B., Ohlhorst, S. D., Brown, A. W., Hoffman, D. J., Liska, D. J., Feskens, E. J. M., Dhillon, J., Tucker, K. L., Epstein, L. H., et al. (2022) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmac043 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Sensitization of food reinforcement is related to weight status and baseline food reinforcement
Temple, J. L., & Epstein, L. H. (2011) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2011.210 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Brain reward region responsivity of adolescents with and without parental substance use disorders.
Stice, E. M., & Yokum, S. (2013) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/a0034460 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“…for snack foods eat more food ad lib, subjects who rate the snack foods as more hedonically pleasurable work more for the snack foods, subjects work more for food when they are food deprived, and obese versus lean subjects work for more food (Epstein et al., 2003, 2007; Goldfield & Legg, 2006).”
BackgroundCan the reinforcing value of food be measured in bulimia nervosa?
Schebendach, J., Broft, A. I., Foltin, R. W., & Walsh, B. T. (2012) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2012.11.009 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Factors that influence the reinforcing value of foods and beverages
Temple, J. L. (2014) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.04.037 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Buckland, N. J., Camidge, D., Croden, F., Lavin, J., Stubbs, R. J., Hetherington, M. M., Blundell, J. E., & Finlayson, G. (2018) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxy041 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“This novel finding is important because energy-reducing diets can lead to increases in the reinforcing value of food (40) and the appeal of high-fat foods (41).”
BackgroundEffect of limiting snack food variety across days on hedonics and consumption
Raynor, H. A., & Wing, R. R. (2006) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2005.12.001 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Food Reward and Food Choice. An Inquiry Through The Liking and Wanting Model
Recio-Román, A., Recio-Menéndez, M., & Román-González, M. V. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12030639 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Thus, unraveling this hedonic drives may help us understand the factors that influence the excessive food intake associated with obesity [1,57,58].”
BackgroundCraving and startle modification during in vivo exposure to food cues
Hawk, L. W., Baschnagel, J. S., Ashare, R. L., & Epstein, L. H. (2004) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2004.06.008 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Accumulating Data to Optimally Predict Obesity Treatment (ADOPT) Core Measures: Psychosocial Domain
Sutin, A. R., Boutelle, K. N., Czajkowski, S. M., Epel, E. S., Green, P. A., Hunter, C. M., Rice, E. L., Williams, D. M., Young-Hyman, D. L., & Rothman, A. J. (2018) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.22160 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Additionally, the reward value of food is known to increase during short-term energy deficit (63), whereas changes in food “liking” and “wanting” have been shown to differentiate between those susceptible versus resistant to exerciseinduced weight loss (64).”
BackgroundHow to tell where ‘liking’ ends and ‘wanting’ begins
Havermans, R. C. (2011) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.10.013 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Behind binge eating: A review of food-specific adaptations of neurocognitive and neuroimaging tasks
Berner, L. A., Winter, S. R., Matheson, B. E., Benson, L., & Lowe, M. R. (2017) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.03.037 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Darwinian Hedonism and the Epidemic of Unhealthy Behavior
Williams, D. M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275047 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Dietary restraint, anxiety, and the relative reinforcing value of snack food in non-obese women
Goldfield, G. S., & Legg, C. (2005) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2005.11.006 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Biopsychological Aspects of Motivation
Schultheiss, O. C., & Wirth, M. M. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511499821.011 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Experimental scarcity increases the relative reinforcing value of food in food insecure adults
Crandall, A. K., & Temple, J. L. (2018) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2018.05.148 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
High BMI and reduced engagement and enjoyment of pleasant events
Pagoto, S., Spring, B. J., Cook, J. W., McChargue, D. E., & Schneider, K. E. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.020 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Social Smartphone Apps Do Not Capture Attention Despite Their Perceived High Reward Value
Johannes, N., Dora, J., & Rusz, D. (2018) · Collabra: Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.207 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“We predicted that social apps would be particularly distracting if users had been deprived to access them (Epstein et al., 2003; Seibt et al., 2007).”
BackgroundBuscemi, J., Murphy, J. G., Berlin, K. S., & Raynor, H. A. (2014) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036376 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“This operant laboratory paradigm has been modified and replicated using both a hypothetical computerized labbased task and a self-report questionnaire (Epstein et al., 2003; Goldfield & Epstein, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKoranyi, N., Grigutsch, L. A., Algermissen, J., & Rothermund, K. (2016) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.08.008 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
When facebook and finals collide - procrastinatory social media usage predicts enhanced anxiety☆
Sternberg, N., Luria, R., Chandhok, S., Vickers, B., Kross, E., & Sheppes, G. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106358 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Hopkins, M., Beaulieu, K., Myers, A., Gibbons, C., & Blundell, J. E. (2017) · Expert Review of Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1080/17446651.2017.1395693 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“The reward value of food has also been shown to increase during short-term energy deficit [120].”
BackgroundFlavour–flavour learning occurs automatically and only in hungry participants
Brunstrom, J. M., & Fletcher, H. Z. (2007) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.07.009 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Taste and food reinforcement in non-overweight youth
Epstein, L. H., Carr, K. A., Scheid, J. L., Gebre, E., O'Brien, A., Paluch, R. A., & Temple, J. L. (2015) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.050 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Measuring sensory perception in relation to consumer behavior
Hayes, J. E. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1533/9781782422587.1.53 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Rogers, P. J., Vural, Y., Berridge-Burley, N., Butcher, C., Cawley, E., Gao, Z., Sutcliffe, A., Tinker, L., Zeng, X., Flynn, A. N., et al. (2023) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2023.107124 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…to eat a food predicts ad libitum intake of that food, equally well or better than alternative measures (e. g., ‘work for ’ or ‘willingness to pay ’ measures) commonly used in research on food reward (Epstein et al., 2003; Havermans et al., 2009; Perszyk et al., 2021; Rogers & Hardman, 2015).”
BackgroundFTO polymorphisms moderate the association of food reinforcement with energy intake
Scheid, J. L., Carr, K. A., Lin, H. C., Fletcher, K. D., Sucheston, L., Singh, P. K., Salis, R. J., Erbe, R. W., Faith, M. S., Allison, D. B., et al. (2014) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.04.029 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Effects of Temptation and Weight on Hedonics and Motivation to Eat in Women
Ouwehand, C., & de Ridder, D. T. D. (2008) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2008.316 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“(5) found that food deprivation increased the motivation to eat but not the hedonics of food.”
BackgroundInfluence of sedentary, social, and physical alternatives on food reinforcement.
Carr, K. A., & Epstein, L. H. (2017) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000563 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
- Authors
- Epstein, L. H., Truesdale, R., Wojcik, A., Paluch, R. A., & Raynor, H. A.
- Affiliations
- University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
- Corresponding author
- Epstein, Leonard H
- Venue
- Physiology & Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-02
- Volume
- 78
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 221-227
- ISSN
- 0031-9384 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2025315614
- Cited by
- 267
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 1.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Physiology & Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD025997, HD-25997)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- food deprivation, incentive salience, taste reactivity, dietary habits, food reward, dietary restraint
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Eating, Female, Food, Food Deprivation, Food Preferences, Humans, Philosophy, Reinforcement, Psychology, Taste
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