Effects of motivation and medication on electrophysiological markers of response inhibition in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Theories of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) posit either executive deficits and/or alterations in motivational style and reward processing as core to the disorder. Effects of motivational incentives on electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory control and relationships between motivation and stimulant medication have not been explicitly tested. METHODS: Children (9-15 years) with combined-type ADHD (n = 28) and matched typically developing children (CTRL) (n = 28) performed a go/no-go task. Electroencephalogram data were recorded. Amplitude of two event-related potentials, the N2 and P3 (markers of response conflict and attention), were measured. The ADHD children were all stimulant responders tested on and off their usual dose of methylphenidate; CTRLs were never medicated. All children performed the task under three motivational conditions: reward; response cost; and baseline, in which points awarded/deducted for inhibitory performance varied. RESULTS: There were effects of diagnosis (CTRL > ADHD unmedicated), medication (on > off), and motivation (reward and/or response cost > baseline) on N2 and P3 amplitude, although the N2 diagnosis effect did not reach statistical significance (p = .1). Interactions between motivation and diagnosis/medication were nonsignificant (p > .1). CONCLUSIONS: Motivational incentives increased amplitudes of electrophysiological correlates of response conflict and attention in children with ADHD, towards the baseline (low motivation) amplitudes of control subjects. These results suggest that, on these measures, motivational incentives have similar effects in children with ADHD as typically developing CTRLs and have additive effects with stimulant medication, enhancing stimulus salience and allocation of attentional resources during response inhibition.
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Performance-based incentives and optimal task pace help to offset impaired arousal regulation in ADHD.
“suggest that these factors help to offset impaired arousal regulation in ADHD.”
From Is autonomic nervous system function atypical in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? A systematic review of the evidence (2020) · cites this paper as Groom et al., 2010
The Abstract Conclusions and Discussion (Effects of Diagnosis and Motivation; page not provided) report that incentives increased electrophysiological markers of attention and response conflict in children with ADHD, bringing them closer to control-group baseline levels. The Methods (Paradigm; page not provided) describe task timing and an adaptive response-time limit, but do not show that an optimal task pace offsets impaired arousal regulation. That part of the claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThis indicates that impaired arousal regulation in ADHD may be malleable by motivational incentives.
“This indicates that impaired arousal regulation in ADHD may be malleable by motivational incentives, consistent with previous evidence showing the effects of motivational incentives on electrophysiological (Groom et al., 2010(Groom et al., , 2013) ) and fMRI correlates (Liddle et al., 2011) in ADHD.”
From Is autonomic nervous system function atypical in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? A systematic review of the evidence (2020) · cites this paper as Groom et al., 2010
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“…and Jensen, 1999; Ray Li et al., 2006; Roessner et al., 2008; Shephard et al., 2015), it has repeatedly been reported to be impaired in ADHD (e.g. Holmes et al., 2010; Groom et al., 2010) and TS + ADHD (Greimel et al., 2011; Roessner et al., 2007; Shephard et al., 2015; Sukhodolsky et al., 2010).”
Jitter Reduces Response-Time Variability in ADHD
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“It has been demonstrated that MPH treatment raises P3 amplitudes [19,20].”
Ludyga, S., Tränkner, S., Gerber, M., & Pühse, U. (2021) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000002626 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“An alternative explanation takes the participants’ motivation into account, as experimental manipulations have revealed an almost linear relation of this aspect with the P3a amplitude on NoGo trials (49).”
Performance Monitoring in Medication-Naïve Children with Tourette Syndrome
Eichele, H., Eichele, T., Bjelland, I., Høvik, M. F., Sørensen, L., van Wageningen, H., Worren, M. K., Hugdahl, K., & Plessen, K. J. (2016) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00050 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“We also did observe “group” and “outcome x group” effects, which were followed-up by appropriate ANCOVA designs controlling for confounds (Tables 3, 4).”
Hámori, G., File, B., Fiáth, R., Pászthy, B., Réthelyi, J., Ulbert, I., & Bunford, N. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115139 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…loss (Cue P3 to lose vs. neutral lose); and magnitude of differential motivated, task-relevant attention to target stimuli (Broyd et al., 2012b; Groom et al., 2010; H ´ amori et al., 2022) in response to which a larger relative to a smaller win can be obtained (Target P3 to win vs. neutral…”
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.01.017 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Smith, S. D., Crowley, M. J., Ferrey, A. E., Ramsey, K. L., Wexler, B. E., Leckman, J. F., & Sukhodolsky, D. G. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.06.021 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Stimulant medications (i.e., methylphenidate) have been shown to increase P3 and N2 amplitudes in children with ADHD so they are comparable to HC children (Broyd et al., 2005; Groom et al., 2010; Janssen et al., 2016; Ozdag et al., 2004).”
Heinrich, H., Hoegl, T., Moll, G. H., & Kratz, O. (2014) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awu029 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…with ADHD at the performance and neural level (Uebel et al., 2010; Liddle et al., 2011) though, in an event-related potential study, motivational incentives increased the No-Go-N2 and No-Go-P3 in children with ADHD and typically developing children to a comparable amount (Groom et al., 2010).”
Rubinson, M., Horowitz, I., Naim‐Feil, J., Gothelf, D., Levit‐Binnun, N., & Moses, E. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0217383 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“On the other hand, no change in N2 was detected in studies which examined mostly boys (27 of 28 participants) during the Go/No-Go task [20] or a mixed-gender group of children during CPT [19].”
InfluentialMonetary rewards modulate inhibitory control
Herrera, P., Speranza, M., Hampshire, A., & Bekinschtein, T. A. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00257 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“SSRT values around 200 ms have been described as the normal range for adults (Logan and Cowan, 1984).”
Does Anxiety Enhance or Hinder Attentional and Impulse Control in Youth With ADHD? An ERP Analysis
Klymkiw, D. F., Milligan, K., Lackner, C., Phillips, M., Schmidt, L. A., & Segalowitz, S. J. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054717707297 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Although rare, a reverse pattern of results has been demonstrated in both youth with ADHD (Groom et al., 2010) and youth with anxiety (Hum et al.”
InfluentialMiranda, P., Cox, C. D., Alexander, M., Danev, S., & Lakey, J. R. T. (2020) · Medical Devices Evidence and Research · doi:10.2147/mder.s241205 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Scerif, G., & Baker, K. (2014) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12374 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“ADHD has been associated with structural and functional abnormalities of a distributed lateralized corticostriatal network (Batty et al., 2010; Durston et al., 2003; Groom et al., 2010), as well as global neuroanatomical atypicalities, for example a marked delay in attaining peak thickness across the cerebral cortex (…”
Zhang, T., Wang, C., Tan, F., Mou, D., Zheng, L., & Chen, A. (2016) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2016.04.003 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Hsu, C.-F., Broyd, S. J., Helps, S. K., Benikos, N., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2013) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2013.05.043 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“These effects were similar in scale to those related to stimulant medication (Groom et al., 2010).”
Zubovics, E. A., Fiáth, R., Rádosi, A., Pászthy, B., Réthelyi, J., Ulbert, I., & Bunford, N. (2020) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13723 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“The Target P3, similar to the Cue P3, reflects motivated and task-relevant attention following 150 appearance of a target and is further considered a neural marker of stimulus evaluation and categorization 151 processes (Broyd et al., 2012; Groom et al., 2010).”
Zarka, D., Cebolla, A. M., Cevallos, C., Palmero‐Soler, E., Dan, B., & Cheron, G. A. (2021) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15198 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Because inhibition control has been considered as the primary deficit in ADHD (Barkley, 1997), measures of inhibition processes like GO/NoGO tasks were extensively used to investigate EEG features of ADHD (Baijot et al., 2016, 2017; Buchmann et al., 2011; Groom et al., 2010; Johnstone & Clarke, 2009; Rubinson et al.,…”
Michelini, G., Lenartowicz, A., Diaz-Fong, J. P., Bilder, R. M., McGough, J. J., McCracken, J. T., & Loo, S. K. (2023) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.017 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Palaniyappan, L. K., Batty, M. J., Liddle, P. F., Liddle, E. B., Groom, M. J., Hollis, C. P., & Scerif, G. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00235 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Participants Participants were recruited as part of an functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI)/electroencephalography (EEG) study reported elsewhere (34, 35) and described in detail in Batty et al.”
Maya-Piedrahita, M. C., Herrera-Gomez, P. M., Berrío-Mesa, L., Cárdenas-Peña, D. A., & Orozco, A. A. (2022) · International Journal of Neural Systems · doi:10.1142/s0129065722500083 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Hámori, G., Rádosi, A., Pászthy, B., Réthelyi, J., Ulbert, I., Fiáth, R., & Bunford, N. (2022) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.14043 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“The Target P3, comparably the Cue P3, reflects motivated, task- relevant attention to a target as well as stimulus categorization and evaluation (Broyd et al., 2012; Groom et al., 2010).”
Güven, A., Altınkaynak, M., Dolu, N., Demi̇rci̇, E., Özmen, S., İzzetoğlu, M., & Pektaş, F. (2018) · Nöro Psikiyatri Arşivi · doi:10.29399/npa.22873 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Developmental change in intentional action and inhibition: A heart rate analysis
Schel, M. A., Windhorst, D. A., van der Molen, M. W., & Crone, E. A. (2013) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12065 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Previous research has shown that motivation indeed plays an important role in inhibition (Groom et al., 2010; Leotti & Wager, 2010; Sinopoli, Schachar, & Dennis, 2011).”
Berger, C., Müller‐Godeffroy, J., Marx, I., Reis, O., Buchmann, J. A., & Dück, A. (2018) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.1155 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Janssen, T. W. P., van Atteveldt, N., & Oosterlaan, J. (2020) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2020.06.022 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“, 2010; Rosch and Hawk, 2013) or treatment with stimulant medication (Groen et al., 2008; Groom et al., 2010) in children with ADHD, making these useful indices of treatment response.”
Diagnosis of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using Hidden Markov Models
Maya-Piedrahita, M. C., Peña, D. A. C., & Orozco, A. A. (2020) · European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO) · doi:10.23919/eusipco47968.2020.9287676 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Translating Decades of Neuroscience Research into Diagnostic and Treatment Biomarkers for ADHD
Loo, S. K., Lenartowicz, A., Norman, L. J., & Michelini, G. (2024) · Advances in neurobiology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-69491-2_20 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Fernandes, C., Macedo, I., Gonçalves, A. R., Pasion, R., Mata, R., Danese, G., Martins, I. P., Barbosa, F., & Teixeira, J. M. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119189 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“considered a robust index of task-relevance and motivated attention (Groom et al., 2010).”
The influence of social motivation on neural correlates of cognitive control in girls
Barker, T. V., Buzzell, G. A., Troller‐Renfree, S. V., Bowman, L. C., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2021) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22086 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Monetary reward enhances response inhibition processes manifested in No-go P3
Maruo, Y., & Masaki, H. (2024) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2024.112410 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Impact of Motivation on Sustained Attention in Very Preterm and Term-born Children: An ERP Study
Retzler, J., Groom, M. J., Johnson, S. J., & Cragg, L. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547251313888 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“It builds on evidence that incentives can improve attentional task performance in both ADHD and non-ADHD samples (Groom et al., 2010), showing that even without external reinforcers, increasing intrinsic motivation can have positive impacts on abilities to sustain attention in individuals without…”
Zhupa, M., & Beste, C. (2026) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-026-09564-4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Associative learning in ADHD: improved expression under methylphenidate
Kantini, E., Cassaday, H. J., Batty, M. J., Hollis, C. P., & Jackson, G. M. (2011) · Open Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4236/ojpsych.2011.12004 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The sample was part of a larger separate study, reported elsewhere [21,22].”
Raturi, A. K., Narayanan, S. S., & Jena, S. P. K. (2024) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2024.2333809 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“This offers an avenue for early detection and prevention of risks associated with developmental psychopathology (Garc � ıa Dom � ınguez et al., 2013; Groom et al., 2010; Johnson, 2012). the anonymity of participant data.”
Barroso, B. C. R., Mendonça, F., Mazer, P., Prata, C., & Pinto, J. O. (2025) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2025.112553 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Wetzel, N., Widmann, A., Schöllkopf, U., Prigge, M., & Krauel, K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/q3c9e · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cai, W., & Mizuno, Y. (2026) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-026-03972-0 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Shephard, E. (2014) · Nottingham ePrints (University of Nottingham) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Seward, M., Milligan, K., Sibalis, A., Wenban, H., & van Noordt, S. J. R. (2026) · Clinical EEG and Neuroscience · doi:10.1177/15500594251399706 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cognitive-affective flexibility in adult ADHD: Links to emotion reactivity and hyperfocus
Samson, J. L., Rochat, L., Perroud, N. A., & Debbané, M. (2026) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2026.101047 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
CSP-based discriminative capacity index from EEG supporting ADHD diagnosis
Galindo-Noreña, S., Peña, D. A. C., & Orozco, A. A. (2020) · European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO) · doi:10.23919/eusipco47968.2020.9287319 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Despite the reported decreased amplitudes in ADHD children [4], ERN needs to be further explored as an ADHD biomarker [5].”
Effects of motivation on error processing: Controversy and integration
Yaqin, L. I., Ruolan, Z. H. A. O., & Yang, Q. K. (2023) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2024.00085 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cognitive Event-Related Potentials and ADHD Across the Lifespan
Carvalho, S., & Leite, J. (2023) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-41709-2_6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Jafar, N. M., Jomhari, N., & Yusoff, Z. M. (2019) · Jurnal Usuluddin · doi:10.22452/usuluddin.vol47no2.6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Koppány, D., Hámori, G., Réthelyi, J., & Bunford, N. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4236701/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Distractibility, Impulsivity, and Activation of Top-down Control Resources
Skogsholm, L. (2011)
Needham, A. C. (2013) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
(2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815002-3.00020-6
Shephard, E., Jackson, G. M., & Groom, M. J. (2016) · International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2016.04.006
Grandjean, A., Suárez, I., Fonséca, D. D., & Casini, L. A. (2022) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2022.2100882
“…shown that the performance level of children and adolescents with ADHD became similar to that of typically developing peers in a reward condition compared to a no reward condition during a stop-signal task (Konrad et al., 2000) and also in Go/No-Go tasks (Demurie et al., 2016; Groom et al., 2010).”
Du, X., Huang, T., Wu, S., Wang, X., & Chen, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2025.1524443
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The Architecture of Difference: Theoretical Perspectives on Neurodivergent Cognition
Savickaite, S. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-19636-1_2
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- Authors
- Groom, M. J., Scerif, G., Liddle, P. F., Batty, M. J., Liddle, E. B., Roberts, K. L., Cahill, J. D., Liotti, M., & Hollis, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Nottingham (GB)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Groom, Madeleine J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Biological Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-04
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 624-631
- ISSN
- 0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2845810
- OpenAlex
- W1986930054
- Cited by
- 101
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 3.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (076448/Z/05/Z)
- Nottinghamshire Healthcare National Health Service (NHS) Trust
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, response inhibition, inhibitory control, motivation, reward processing, response cost, stimulant medication, methylphenidate, event-related potentials, N2, P3, go/no-go task, executive function, children
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Evoked Potentials, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Male, Methylphenidate, Motivation
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