Estimation of total body water and extracellular water with bioimpedance in athletes: A need for athlete-specific prediction models
Abstract
Purpose Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) equations can predict total body water (TBW) and extracellular water (ECW) in non-athletic healthy populations. This study aimed: a) to develop BIA-based models for TBW and ECW prediction based on dilution methods in a sample of national level athletes; and b) to validate the new models with a cross-validation approach in a separate cohort using dilution methods as criterion. Methods Two hundred and eight highly trained athletes (21.3 ± 5.0 years) were evaluated during their respective competitive seasons. Athletes were randomly split into development (n = 139) and validation groups (n = 69). The criterion method for TBW was deuterium dilution and for ECW was bromide dilution, where ICW was the respective difference between both. Resistance (R) and reactance (Xc) were obtained with a phase-sensitive 50 kHz BIA device and used for the estimation of TBW and ECW. Results Athletic BIA-based models were developed for TBW and ECW [TBW = 0.286 + 0.195*S(2)/R + 0.385*Wt + 5.086*Sex; ECW = 1.579 + 0.055*S(2)/R + 0.127*Wt + 0.006*S(2)/Xc + 0.932*Sex, where sex is 0 if female or 1 if male, Wt is weight (kg), S is stature (cm), and R and Xc are in ohm (Ω)]. Cross validation revealed R(2) of 0.91 for TBW and R(2) 0.70 for ECW and no mean bias. Conclusions The new equations can be considered valid, with no observed bias, thus affording practical means to quantify TBW and ECW in national level athletes.
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Risk of bias was unclear in six studies.
“Risk of bias was high in two [34, 35] and unclear in six [36–41] studies due to the low to moderate (R2 < 80%) coefficient of determination (R2) resulted from the multiple regression models.”
From High-standard predictive equations for estimating body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis: a systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
Out of the 19 available equations for athletes, 15 were developed with foot-to-hand technology.
“Out of the 19 available equations, 15 were developed with foot to hand technology [31, 39, 48, 51, 62, 69, 84, 85, 87, 104], while four equations were developed using segmental technology [88].”
From High-standard predictive equations for estimating body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis: a systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
Four studies on athletes involved Portuguese male and female participants from different sport disciplines.
“Four studies involved Portuguese male and female participants from different sport disciplines [39, 69, 84, 87], while two studies recruited male Brazilian army cadets [85] considered as very active individuals [103] and adolescents from various sport disciplines [104].”
From High-standard predictive equations for estimating body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis: a systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
One equation for athletes is for estimating ECW.
“Moreover, we retrieved one equation for estimating TBW [39], one for estimating ECW [39] and five for estimating LSM [31, 87], where three of them are suitable for both sexes [39, 87], and two in male only [31].”
From High-standard predictive equations for estimating body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis: a systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
One equation for athletes is for estimating TBW.
“Moreover, we retrieved one equation for estimating TBW [39], one for estimating ECW [39] and five for estimating LSM [31, 87], where three of them are suitable for both sexes [39, 87], and two in male only [31].”
From High-standard predictive equations for estimating body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis: a systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
Of the five LSM equations for athletes, three are suitable for both sexes.
“Moreover, we retrieved one equation for estimating TBW [39], one for estimating ECW [39] and five for estimating LSM [31, 87], where three of them are suitable for both sexes [39, 87], and two in male only [31].”
From High-standard predictive equations for estimating body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis: a systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
Considering foot-to-hand technology for athletes, 12 equations are suitable for males.
“Considering the foot to hand technology, 12 equations are suitable for male [31, 39, 48, 69, 84, 85, 87, 104] and eight for female people only [39, 51, 62, 69, 87, 104].”
From High-standard predictive equations for estimating body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis: a systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
Considering foot-to-hand technology for athletes, eight equations are suitable for females only.
“Considering the foot to hand technology, 12 equations are suitable for male [31, 39, 48, 69, 84, 85, 87, 104] and eight for female people only [39, 51, 62, 69, 87, 104].”
From High-standard predictive equations for estimating body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis: a systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
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“[26], based on the gold-standard deuterium/bromide-dilution method in a young lean athletic sample, as follows: TBW = (0.”
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“[32], where Wt refers to body mass (kg), sex is a binary value where 0 and 1 refer to female and male, respectively, S is the stature (cm), Rz reflects the resistance (ohm), and Xc is the reactance (ohm).”
BackgroundPrediction of Somatotype from Bioimpedance Analysis in Elite Youth Soccer Players
Campa, F., Matias, C. N., Nikolaidis, P. Τ., Lukaski, H. C., Talluri, J., & Toselli, S. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17218176 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“BIA uses bioelectrical properties of tissues to estimate BC variables such as total body water (TBW) and the respective intra and extracellular compartment (ICW and ECW) [5], fat mass (FM), fat-free mass (FFM) [6], and lean soft tissue (LST) [7].”
MethodSelf-citationPeak Week Carbohydrate Manipulation Practices in Physique Athletes: A Narrative Review
Homer, K. A., Cross, M. R., & Helms, E. R. (2024) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-024-00674-z · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Thus, a prediction equation developed by Matias et al. [99] was utilised by Nunes et al. [95]; unfortunately, since the equation was derived from high-level non-physique athletes, disparities in the body geometries between the sample used for calibration and physique athletes probably inflated the…”
MethodResultLanger, R. D., Matias, C. N., Borges, J. H., Cirolini, V. X., Páscoa, M. A., Guerra‐Júnior, G., & Gonçalves, E. M. (2018) · Military Medicine · doi:10.1093/milmed/usx223 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationCampa, F., Matias, C. N., Teixeira, F. J., Reis, J. F., Valamatos, M. J., Coratella, G., & Monteiro, C. P. (2022) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2022.111694 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationBongiovanni, T., Lacome, M., Rodriguez, C., & Tinsley, G. M. (2024) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000004662 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Rossi, L. (2021) · Journal of Electrical Bioimpedance · doi:10.2478/joeb-2021-0009 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Considering the phase angle value, its practical application must go beyond classical studies that use it as an index of the ratio between intra and extracellular water, or body cell mass and cell integrity [7,11]; there are also different approaches, as is the case for judo, in which the phase angle is related to mag…”
Matias, C. N., Campa, F., Cavaca, M., Paoli, A., & Teixeira, F. J. (2023) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2022.111931 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationAdvancing physical activity monitoring through bioimpedance measurement: a review
Jacobs, I., Lowe, A., García, L., & Zhang, H. (2026) · Progress in Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1088/2516-1091/ae3671 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“However, empirical models based on population data allow approximate ECW and ICW estimation by assuming a stable ECW/TBW ratio in healthy individuals [82, 83].”
Matias, C. N., Noujeimi, F. A., Sardinha, L. B., Teixeira, V. H., & Silva, A. M. (2018) · Science & Sports · doi:10.1016/j.scispo.2018.11.007 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationIndividualized body bioelectrical impedance parameters in newly diagnosed cancer children
Luna, T. B., González, M. M., Jarque, M. V., González, T. R., Brooks, S. C. A., Castañeda, A. R. S., Regüeiferos, J. C. C., González, V. G. S., & Cabrales, L. E. B. (2020) · Translational Medicine Communications · doi:10.1186/s41231-020-00062-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Toselli, S., Moro, F., Perugini, M., & Mauro, M. (2025) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.20096 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kampo, D., Závodná, E., & Vondra, V. (. (2025) · Physiological Research · doi:10.33549/physiolres.935758 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“In some studies, deuterium dilution has also been combined with sodium bromide dilution to separately determine extracellular water (ECW), since bromide ions remain restricted to the extracellular space [2].”
Špenko, M., Potočnik, I., Edwards, I. J., & Potočnik, N. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19169797 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Before each SSE, the subjects were weighed and whole-body resistance and reactance were obtained by bio impedance analysis (BIA) (BIA-101, Akern, Firenze, Italy) using foot-to-hand measurement to assess hydration [24].”
MethodZhang, J., Zhang, N., Li, Y., He, H., Song, G., Chen, J., Yan, Y., & Ma, G. (2024) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2024.1458242 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Electrical Impedance Signal Analysis for Medical Diagnosis
Vargas-Luna, M., Balleza, M., Franco, M. R. H., & Riu, P. J. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74388-2_5 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Comprehensive Overview of Hypernatremia: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management
Mittal, R., Lai, A. M. W., Coskin, R., et al. (2025) · British Journal of Hospital Medicine · doi:10.12968/hmed.2024.0822 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis in Professional and Semi-Professional Football: A Scoping Review
Pérez-Castillo, Í. M., Valiño-Marques, A., Chicharro, J. L., Segura-Ortiz, F., Rueda, R., & Bouzamondo, H. (2025) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports13100348 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“An advantage of BIA is the capacity to provide quantitative estimations of TBW using tracer dilution techniques as validation criterion, which may be used to assess changes in body fluid balance through repeated measurements [84].”
InfluentialCebrián‐Ponce, Á., Irurtia, A., Castizo-Olier, J., Garnacho‐Castaño, M. V., Espasa-Labrador, J., Noriega, Z., & Carrasco‐Marginet, M. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12030450 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Somatotype and bioelectrical impedance vector analysis of Italian CrossFit® practitioners
Cebrián‐Ponce, Á., Serafini, S., Petri, C., Carrasco‐Marginet, M., Izzicupo, P., & Mascherini, G. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29139 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Fat-free mass (FFM), TBW, and ECW were obtained by applying the formulas developed by Matias et al. [28,29].”
MethodCattem, M. V. D. O., Coelho, G. M. D. O., & Koury, J. C. (2024) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2024.112484 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cebrián‐Ponce, Á., Micheli, M. L., Politi, C., et al. (2024) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.70035 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Additionally, Fat Mass (FM), FFM, TBW, Extracellular Water (ECW), and Intracellular Water (ICW) were determined using the equations established by Matias et al. (2016, 2020).”
MethodGong, H., Chen, S., Yu, S., et al. (2022) · Journal of Healthcare Engineering · doi:10.1155/2022/6169150 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Although there are some differences in the results due to different exercise modes, intensity, and research objects, a large number of epidemiological and clinical investigations have confirmed the following: No matter for men, women, old people, or children, China-Africa daily health life habits and lack of exercise…”
BackgroundInfluentialRetractedIzzicupo, P., Petri, C., Serafini, S., Galanti, G., & Mascherini, G. (2023) · Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology · doi:10.3390/jfmk8030100 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Similar considerations can be raised for other compartments such as muscle mass [34] and total body water and its distribution into the intra- and extra-cellular compartment [35].”
BackgroundBody fluids and muscle changes in trail runners of various distances
Cebrián‐Ponce, Á., Marini, E., Stagi, S., Castizo-Olier, J., Carrasco‐Marginet, M., Garnacho‐Castaño, M. V., Noriega, Z., Espasa-Labrador, J., & Irurtia, A. (2023) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.16563 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Khatun, M. F., Raña, M. S., Fahim, T. A., & Zuhori, S. T. (2019) · Conference proceedings - Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering · doi:10.1109/ccece.2019.8861841 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Ferrer-Ramos, P., Artés, A., Javierre, C. F., et al. (2024) · Sport Sciences for Health · doi:10.1007/s11332-024-01217-5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“In this sense, bioelectrical impedance has been previously used to provide sensitive information on lower limb edema [13, 24, 25].”
A testösszetétel meghatározásának módszerei a klinikai gyakorlatban
Leel-Őssy, T., Babity, M., Zámodics, M., Szigeti, E., Hájer, A., Kiss, O., Horváth, C., & Mészáros, S. (2025) · Orvosi Hetilap · doi:10.1556/650.2025.33154 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Effect of short-term consumption bitter apricot seeds on the body composition in healthy population
Kopčeková, J., Kolesárová, A., Gažarová, M., et al. (2017) · Potravinarstvo Slovak Journal of Food Sciences · doi:10.5219/718 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The benefits and importance of an appropriate hydration for health and performance are well known with total body water (TBW) being comprised of both intracellular (ICW) and extracellular (ECW) with a flux existing between the two (Matias et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMarked differences in redox status of professional soccer players depending on training types
Bolner, A., Berizzi, C., Benedetto, S., Vano, R., Bosello, O., & Nordera, G. (2019) · American Journal of Research in Medical Sciences · doi:10.5455/ajrms.20190512094558 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Since its association with the redox balance [37,38], the total body water was estimated at rest, 48 hours after the match, using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA), taking into account the sensitivity to osmolarity [39,40].”
MethodRapid Four‐Compartment Models in Athletes Using Alternative Solutions for Body Volume and Water
Silva, T. R., Poínhos, R., Sardinha, L. B., Teixeira, V. H., & Silva, A. M. (2025) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.70062 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Given the occasional unavailability of BIS, this study also tested regression equations derived from raw bioelectrical impedance resistance values (Matias et al. [31] and Sun et al. [32]) to explore alternative TBW measures.”
Self-citationCerullo, G., Franchi, M. V., Sampieri, A., Campa, F., & Paoli, A. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17111881 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In this study, body volume and bone mineral content were estimated from DXA parameters [50] and total body water from bioelectrical impedance [51], as reported below.”
Francisco, R., Rosa, G. B., Júdice, P. B., Magalhães, J. P., Cruz, A. D., Sardinha, L. B., Lukaski, H. C., & Silva, A. M. (2025) · Clinical Nutrition ESPEN · doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2025.08.005 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationLai, Y.-K., Ho, C.-Y., Huang, A.-C., Lu, H.-K., & Hsieh, K.-C. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0300911 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Recently, body composition estimation equations have been proposed to measure the body composition of athletes using BIA to distinguish Sex differences [21, 22].”
Farley, A., Bennett, H., Eston, R. G., et al. (2024) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-024-00783-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“%) within a normal range for athletes [33–35].”
BackgroundExploratory approach to speculate on body composition models for elite teenage basketball players
Mauro, M., Moro, F., & Toselli, S. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-20293-2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“As Matias and colleagues debated, the presence of body mass and stature as regressors strongly affect the final estimation, and anthropometrical higher values led to overestimate TBW, reducing body fat percentage 31,32 .”
Tamayo-Orozco, J. A., Tlatoa-Ramírez, H., Velázquez-Verduzco, A., et al. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Densitometry · doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2016.06.001 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Relationship between Left Ventricle and Body Composition in Young Male and Female Athletes
Mascherini, G., Petri, C., & Galanti, G. (2018) · Human Physiology · doi:10.1134/s0362119718040084 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Bioelectrical Impedance Technology in Sports Anthropometry: Segmental Analysis in Karate Athletes
Gligoroska, J. P., Mančevska, S., Dejanova, B., & Augustovicova, D. C. (2018) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-00825-3_14 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Aldobali, M., Pal, K., Chhabra, H. S., & Sharawat, R. (2022) · doi:10.3390/materproc2022010003 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“, 2016 [42] The new validation demonstrates TBW, ECW, and ICW evaluation values.”
BackgroundWang, S., Zhang, P., Hu, Y., et al. (2024) · Advanced Exercise and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.aehs.2024.09.003 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A multiple linear regression model for predicting characteristic frequencies in biological tissues
Apon, I. A., Hasan, M. R., Zafur, A., Wahid, M. F., & Haque, M. S. (2024) · AIP Advances · doi:10.1063/5.0237567 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
de Andrade, A. B., Andrade, E. M. P. R. D., Vigário, P. D. S., Luchesa, C. A., Vieira, J. E. D. A., de Jesus, I. R. T., & Lopes, A. J. (2025) · International journal of exercise science · doi:10.70252/ppgl4101 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“21,22 Immediately after the BIA, the ten seconds Frequency Speed of Kick Test (FSKT-10s) was performed.”
Rossi, C., Lafontant, K., Vasenina, E., et al. (2026) · Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2026-0022 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Body Composition in Athletes: History, Methodology and Computational Prospects
Rudnev, S. G. (2019) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35048-2_19 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Martins, P. C., da Silva, P. M., & Silva, D. A. S. (2021) · The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness · doi:10.23736/s0022-4707.21.12008-0 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hazır, T., Köse, M. G., Kulaksız, T. N., Esatbeyoğlu, F., & İŞLER, A. K. (2024) · Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.17644/sbd.1326241 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kapica, D., Warchulińska, J., Jakubiak, M., Teter, M., Mlak, R., Hałabiś, M., Wójcik, W., & Malecka-Massalska, T. J. (2015) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.2205299 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Vázquez-Bautista, M. A., Robles-Sardin, A. E., Reséndiz-Sandoval, M., Navarro-Ibarra, M. J., Hernández López, J., & Caire-Juvera, G. (2025) · BIOtecnia · doi:10.18633/biotecnia.v27.2512
“Additionally, FFM was predicted by applying the equations proposed by Macias et al. (2007) Lukaski and Bolonchuk (1986) (EQ3) and Matias et al. (2016) (EQ4), which are based on BIA and basic anthropometric variables and enable the prediction of FFM or TBW (Table 1).”
Flexible textile antenna sensor for bio-impedance sensing
Huang, H., & Skilskyj, J. (2019) · Sensors and Smart Structures Technologies for Civil, Mechanical, and Aerospace Systems · doi:10.1117/12.2514368
High-Accuracy Impedance Read-out Circuit for BIA-type Biomedical Sensors
Wang, C., Senior Member, I. E. E. E., Lou, P.-Y., et al. (2021) · Circuits Systems and Signal Processing · doi:10.1007/s00034-021-01670-4
Hossain, S., Ali, Y., Ishfaq, A. K. M. T., et al. (2021) · International Conference for Convergence in Technology (I2CT) · doi:10.1109/i2ct51068.2021.9417818
Lu, H., Shinki, K., & Mattoo, T. K. (2022) · Clinical Nutrition ESPEN · doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2022.11.014
Zhang, J., Zhang, N., Li, Y., et al. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2769116/v1
Lai, Y.-K., Ho, C.-Y., Huang, A.-C., et al. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.03.07.24303957
Helvacı, G., Balaban, S., & Uçar, A. (2024) · Ankara Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulu SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.33689/spormetre.1315591
Forensic alcohol calculations in individuals under the age of 18
Maskell, P., Officer, J., Lowrie, C., et al. (2024) · Journal of Forensic Sciences · doi:10.1111/1556-4029.15608
Ramos, P. G. F., Teno, S. C., Silva, H., Rosa, G. B., & Júdice, P. B. (2025) · Physical Activity and Health · doi:10.5334/paah.409
Self-citationThe effect of a prolonged tennis serve game on shoulder function, speed and precision
Brito, A. V., Carvalho, D., Silva, M., Ferreira, F., Vilas‐Boas, J. P., Fernández-Fernández, J., & Fernandes, R. J. (2025) · Sports Biomechanics · doi:10.1080/14763141.2025.2552172
“…0.45 ± 8.5 N.m/kg and 77.1 ± 33.49 J) (Cigercioglu et al., 2021; Niederbracht & Shim, 2008; Stanley et al., 2004), probably due to their higher muscle and lean mass (62.5 ± 10.5, 40.0 ± 3.6 and 66.2 ± 8.8 kg, respectively) (Karnia et al., 2010; Martínez-Rodríguez et al., 2014; Matias et al., 2015).”
InfluentialA one-compartment model provides benchmark Lithium dose prediction
Kavanagh, O. N., Asprey, E., Edelmann, K. A., Ritter, P. S., Cousins, D. A., & Wing, V. C. (2025) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811251378508
“We propose that understanding the relationships of these variables on serum lithium concentrations will increase model precision, and ultimately confidence in application in practice.”
- Authors
- Matias, C. N., Santos, D. A., Júdice, P. B., Magalhães, J. P., Minderico, C. S., Fields, D. A., Lukaski, H. C., Sardinha, L. B., & Silva, A. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Lisbon (PT)
- University of Oklahoma (US)
- University of North Dakota (US)
- Corresponding author
- Silva, Analiza M.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-04
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 468-474
- ISSN
- 0261-5614 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2071155160
- Cited by
- 108
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 4.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Body Composition Measurement Techniques
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Thermoregulation and physiological responses
- Keywords
- total body water, extracellular water, bioelectrical impedance analysis, athletes, deuterium dilution, bromide dilution, intracellular water, resistance and reactance
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Body Composition, Body Water, Body Weight, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Male
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