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Cited by 80Body Composition Measurement TechniquesElectrical and Bioimpedance TomographyNutrition and Health in Aging

High-standard predictive equations for estimating body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis: a systematic review

Open access
Campa, Francesco, Coratella, Giuseppe, Cerullo, Giuseppe, Noriega, Zeasseska, Francisco, Rubén, Charrier, Davide, Irurtia, Alfredo, Lukaski, Henry +2 more·2024·Journal of Translational Medicine
DOI 10.1186/s12967-024-05272-xPMC PMC11137940
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Abstract

The appropriate use of predictive equations in estimating body composition through bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) depends on the device used and the subject’s age, geographical ancestry, healthy status, physical activity level and sex. However, the presence of many isolated predictive equations in the literature makes the correct choice challenging, since the user may not distinguish its appropriateness. Therefore, the present systematic review aimed to classify each predictive equation in accordance with the independent parameters used. Sixty-four studies published between 1988 and 2023 were identified through a systematic search of international electronic databases. We included studies providing predictive equations derived from criterion methods, such as multi-compartment models for fat, fat-free and lean soft mass, dilution techniques for total-body water and extracellular water, total-body potassium for body cell mass, and magnetic resonance imaging or computerized tomography for skeletal muscle mass. The studies were excluded if non-criterion methods were employed or if the developed predictive equations involved mixed populations without specific codes or variables in the regression model. A total of 106 predictive equations were retrieved; 86 predictive equations were based on foot-to-hand and 20 on segmental technology, with no equations used the hand-to-hand and leg-to-leg. Classifying the subject’s characteristics, 19 were for underaged, 26 for adults, 19 for athletes, 26 for elderly and 16 for individuals with diseases, encompassing both sexes. Practitioners now have an updated list of predictive equations for assessing body composition using BIA. Researchers are encouraged to generate novel predictive equations for scenarios not covered by the current literature. Registration code in PROSPERO: CRD42023467894.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review compiled high-standard BIA predictive equations for body composition and classified them by BIA technology, sampling frequency, and population. It retrieved 106 equations from 64 studies, with most using foot-to-hand or segmental technology and none meeting inclusion criteria for hand-to-hand or leg-to-leg devices.

Key findings

  • From 64 studies published between 1988 and 2023, 106 predictive equations were retrieved: 86 based on foot-to-hand technology and 20 on segmental technology; no equations used hand-to-hand or leg-to-leg technology.
  • Equations were classified by population: 19 for under-18s, 26 for adults, 19 for athletes, 26 for elderly, and 16 for individuals with diseases, encompassing both sexes.
  • The review included 40,626 individuals: 18,417 males and 21,414 females, with some studies not specifying sex.
  • Quality assessment found high risk of bias in 2 studies and unclear risk in 6 studies due to low-to-moderate R² (<80%); applicability concerns were high in 19 studies and unclear in 12 studies due to restricted sample size.

Methods

  • Systematic review following PRISMA guidelines, registered in PROSPERO (CRD42023467894), with searches in Scopus and PubMed on December 22, 2023, without year restrictions.
  • Included peer-reviewed English full-text studies that developed at least one BIA predictive equation for body mass components using criterion methods such as multi-compartment models, dilution techniques, total-body potassium, MRI, or CT; excluded validation studies, two-component-model studies, and equations mixing populations without specific codes/variables.
  • Data extraction covered authors, year, reference methods, participant characteristics, BIA techniques/devices, predictive equations, and equation characteristics; studies were grouped into under-18, adults, athletes, elderly, and people with diseases, and quality was assessed with QUADAS-2.

Limitations

  • The paper states that grouping equations by BIA technology may be limited because different devices using the same technology can yield different outcomes due to between-device inconsistencies.
  • The paper notes intrinsic BIA limitations: lack of agreement between bioelectrical values at different frequencies, inconsistent methodological procedures across studies, standard errors reported as absolute body-mass values rather than relative to body mass, and possible error propagation from multicomponent reference models.
  • Evident from the text: no included equations used hand-to-hand or leg-to-leg technology, and most equations predominantly used a single frequency of 50 kHz, so coverage across technologies, frequencies, populations, and body components remains incomplete.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1186/s12967-024-05272-x

Cites

108 of 108 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

86 of 232 cited sources checked · 46 supported · 3 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Various studies including those providing reference data based on BIA do not disclose the procedures used.

    “A further question is that various studies including those providing reference data based on BIA do not disclose the procedures used [24, 28].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [24] Campa F, Gobbo LA, Stagi S, Cyrino LT, Toselli S, Marini E, Coratella G. Bioelectrical impedance analysis versus reference methods in the assessment of body composition in athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2022;122(3):561–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04879-y. source

      In “BIA vs. reference methods: FM and FFM” (lines 262–271), the review says only seven of 16 studies using foot-to-hand BIA to assess fat mass reported their predictive equations. It therefore supports a narrower concern about undisclosed analytical methods, but does not establish that studies providing BIA-based reference data failed to disclose their procedures generally. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [28] Amaral MA, Mundstock E, Scarpatto CH, Cañon-Montañez W, Mattiello R. Reference percentiles for bioimpedance body composition parameters of healthy individuals: a cross-sectional study. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2022;77: 100078. source

      The cited paper provides BIA reference data, but its Methods > Data measurements section discloses the measurement procedures, including the device, electrode placement, participant positioning, fasting instructions, and repeated measurements (page not available). It therefore contradicts the claim if cited as an example of a reference-data study that does not disclose its procedures. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    The appropriate use of predictive equations in estimating body composition through BIA depends on the device used and the subject's age, geographical ancestry, health status, physical activity level and sex.

    “The appropriate use of predictive equations in estimating body composition through bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) depends on the device used and the subject’s age, geographical ancestry, healthy status, physical activity level and sex.”
    • Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
      “Additionally, the choice of the equation should be made considering the subjects' characteristics, such as chronological and biological age, geographical provenance, sex, health status, and level of physical activity [25–27].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [25] Campa F, Matias CN, Moro T, Cerullo G, Casolo A, Teixeira FJ, Paoli A. Methods over materials: the need for sport-specific equations to accurately predict fat mass using bioimpedance analysis or anthropometry. Nutrients. 2023;15(2):278. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15020278. source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) says predictive equations are developed for specific populations and should not be used interchangeably. The Methods and Discussion (pages unavailable) further distinguish healthy adults from athletes, exclude equations developed for adolescents and older adults, and caution against extending findings to different BIA technologies. Our copy does not establish geographical ancestry or sex as criteria for choosing an equation, so the full list is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [26] Coratella G, Campa F, Matias C, Toselli S, Koury J, Andreoli A, et al. Generalized bioelectric impedance-based equations underestimate body fluids in athletes. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2021;31:2123–32. source
    • cites [27] Campa F, Matias CN, Teixeira FJ, Reis JF, Valamatos MJ, Coratella G, et al. Comparison of generalized and athletic bioimpedance-based predictive equations for estimating fat-free mass in resistance-trained exercisers. Nutrition. 2022;102: 111694. source
  • Premisecitation

    Mixing different populations without including specific factors (e.g., age, maturity status, sex, physical activity level) as independent variables in the predictive models may question the validity of some BIA predictive equations.

    “Fourth, mixing different populations without including specific factors (e.g., age, maturity status, sex, physical activity level) as independent variables in the predictive models [30].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Toselli S, Campa F, Latessa PM, Greco G, Loi A, Grigoletto A, Zaccagni L. Differences in maturity and anthropometric and morphological characteristics among young male basketball and soccer players and non-players. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(8):3902. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083902. source

      The Discussion reports that maturity status and sport participation are associated with differences in body composition among adolescent boys, supporting the concern that populations can differ. It does not assess BIA predictive equations or show that omitting age, maturity, sex, or activity level as model variables undermines their validity. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingreasoning

    Risk of bias was unclear in six studies.

    “Risk of bias was high in two [34, 35] and unclear in six [36–41] studies due to the low to moderate (R2 < 80%) coefficient of determination (R2) resulted from the multiple regression models.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [36] Roubenoff R, Baumgartner RN, Harris TB, Dallal GE, Hannan MT, Economos CD, et al. Application of bioelectrical impedance analysis to elderly populations. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 1997;52:M129–36. source
    • cites [37] Leman CR, Adeyemo AA, Schoeller DA, Cooper RS, Luke A. Body composition of children in south-western Nigeria: validation of bio-electrical impedance analysis. Ann Trop Paediatr. 2003;23:61–7. source
    • cites [38] Rangel Peniche DB, Raya Giorguli G, Alemán-Mateo H. Accuracy of a predictive bioelectrical impedance analysis equation for estimating appendicular skeletal muscle mass in a non-Caucasian sample of older people. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2015;61:39–43. source
    • cites [39] Matias CN, Santos DA, Júdice PB, Magalhães JP, Minderico CS, Fields DA, et al. Estimation of total body water and extracellular water with bioimpedance in athletes: a need for athlete-specific prediction models. Clin Nutr. 2016;35:468–74. source
    • cites [40] Scafoglieri A, Clarys JP, Bauer JM, Verlaan S, Van Malderen L, Vantieghem S, et al. Predicting appendicular lean and fat mass with bioelectrical impedance analysis in older adults with physical function decline—The PROVIDE study. Clin Nutr. 2017;36:869–75. source

      Table 3 reports multiple-regression R² values below 0.80 for the appendicular fat-mass equations, supporting part of the stated rationale. The paper does not assess its own risk of bias as “unclear” or classify six studies; that is the citing authors’ assessment, not a finding reported by this source. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [41] Choi H-J, Ko C-Y, Chang Y, Kim G-S, Choi K, Kim C-H. Development and validation of bioimpedance prediction equations for fat-free mass in unilateral male amputees. PeerJ. 2021;9: e10970. source
  • Premisereasoning

    Many of these studies merely mention the type of software employed, making it impossible to discern which formulas were used to convert raw bioelectrical parameters into components of body mass.

    “Many of these studies merely mention the type of software employed, making it impossible to discern which formulas were used to convert raw bioelectrical parameters into components of body mass.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [24] Campa F, Gobbo LA, Stagi S, Cyrino LT, Toselli S, Marini E, Coratella G. Bioelectrical impedance analysis versus reference methods in the assessment of body composition in athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2022;122(3):561–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04879-y. source

      The discussion (section 365; page unavailable) says studies using hand-to-hand, leg-to-leg, and direct segmental BIA did not report the predictive equations used to determine percentage fat mass. The review therefore supports the difficulty of identifying the formulas, but the passages do not establish the more specific claim that those studies merely named the software employed. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [28] Amaral MA, Mundstock E, Scarpatto CH, Cañon-Montañez W, Mattiello R. Reference percentiles for bioimpedance body composition parameters of healthy individuals: a cross-sectional study. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2022;77: 100078. source

      The Background discusses earlier bioimpedance reference studies by age range and population, but does not assess how they reported software or conversion formulas. The Methods describe this paper’s own instrument and calculated indexes; searches for software reporting and prediction equations found no passage supporting the claim about other studies. (LLM, conf=0.70)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 40
  • May combine two claims. 14
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Out of the 16 available equations for people with diseases, eight were developed using segmental technology.

    “Out of the 16 available equations, 14 were developed with foot to hand technology [40, 64, 98] and eight using segmental technology [40, 41, 56, 64, 65, 98, 99].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [40] Scafoglieri A, Clarys JP, Bauer JM, Verlaan S, Van Malderen L, Vantieghem S, et al. Predicting appendicular lean and fat mass with bioelectrical impedance analysis in older adults with physical function decline—The PROVIDE study. Clin Nutr. 2017;36:869–75. source

      Section 2.3 describes a whole-body BIA device, not segmental technology. Section 4.1 explicitly says the study’s equations are not validated for segmental BIA devices. The paper also does not establish the citing sentence’s count of eight segmental equations. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [41] Choi H-J, Ko C-Y, Chang Y, Kim G-S, Choi K, Kim C-H. Development and validation of bioimpedance prediction equations for fat-free mass in unilateral male amputees. PeerJ. 2021;9: e10970. source
    • cites [56] Scalfi L, Bedogni G, Marra M, Di Biase G, Caldara A, Severi S, et al. The prediction of total body water from bioelectrical impedance in patients with anorexia nervosa. Br J Nutr. 1997;78:357–65. source

      The Bioelectrical impedance analysis section (page unavailable) describes electrodes placed on the hand and foot, with voltage measured between wrist and ankle—a hand-to-foot setup, not segmental measurement. The paper does not give a count of eight segmental equations; as an example cited for segmental technology, its reported method points the other way. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The study was carried out following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines.

    “The present study was carried out following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372: n71. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Various multi-component models have been developed over time to overcome the limitations of the two-component model and enhance the accuracy of body composition analysis.

    “To overcome the limitations of the two-component model and enhance the accuracy of body composition analysis, various multi-component models have been developed over time [2].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Campa F, Toselli S, Mazzilli M, Gobbo LA, Coratella G. Assessment of body composition in athletes: a narrative review of available methods with special reference to quantitative and qualitative bioimpedance analysis. Nutrients. 2021;13:1620. source

      The Introduction (page not specified) describes several body-composition models, including three- and four-compartment models, and calls the four-compartment formula the most accurate approach for assessing fat mass. It does not say these models were developed over time to overcome limitations of the two-component model, or establish improved accuracy for body-composition analysis generally. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The determination of body composition is a common practice for evaluating health and nutritional status, as well as monitoring the effects of training or diet strategies.

    “The determination of body composition is a common practice for evaluating health and nutritional status, as well as monitoring the effects of training or diet strategies [1, 2].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] Hume PA, Ackland T. Chapter 3—physical and clinical assessment of nutritional status. In: Coulston AM, Boushey CJ, Ferruzzi MG, Delahanty E, editors. LMBT-N in the P and T of D, Academic Press; 2017. p. 71–84. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128029282000035. source
    • cites [2] Campa F, Toselli S, Mazzilli M, Gobbo LA, Coratella G. Assessment of body composition in athletes: a narrative review of available methods with special reference to quantitative and qualitative bioimpedance analysis. Nutrients. 2021;13:1620. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The remaining 12 studies on subjects under 18 years old were performed in different countries around the world and included both sexes.

    “Two of these studies were conducted in the USA, where no female participants were involved [55, 76], while the remaining 12 studies were performed in different countries around the world with both sexes included [37, 43–45, 57–59, 72–75, 100].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim4 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [37] Leman CR, Adeyemo AA, Schoeller DA, Cooper RS, Luke A. Body composition of children in south-western Nigeria: validation of bio-electrical impedance analysis. Ann Trop Paediatr. 2003;23:61–7. source
    • cites [43] van Zyl A, White Z, Ferreira J, Wenhold FAM. Developing an impedance based equation for fat-free mass of black preadolescent south African children. Nutrients. 2019;11(9):2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11092021. source
    • cites [44] Nguyen PH, Young MF, Khuong LQ, Ramakrishnan U, Martorell R, Hoffman DJ. Development of population-specific prediction equations for bioelectrical impedance analyses in Vietnamese children. Br J Nutr. 2020;124:1345–52. source
    • cites [45] Gutiérrez-Marín D, Escribano J, Closa-Monasterolo R, Ferré N, Venables M, Singh P, et al. Validation of bioelectrical impedance analysis for body composition assessment in children with obesity aged 8–14y. Clin Nutr. 2021;40:4132–9. source
    • cites [57] Pietrobelli A, Andreoli A, Cervelli V, Carbonelli MG, Peroni DG, De Lorenzo A. Predicting fat-free mass in children using bioimpedance analysis. Acta Diabetol. 2003;40(Suppl 1):S212–5. source
    • cites [58] Masuda T, Komiya S. A prediction equation for total body water from bioelectrical impedance in Japanese children. J Physiol Anthropol Appl Human Sci. 2004;23:35–9. source
    • cites [59] Nielsen BM, Dencker M, Ward L, Linden C, Thorsson O, Karlsson MK, et al. Prediction of fat-free body mass from bioelectrical impedance among 9- to 11-year-old Swedish children. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2007;9:521–39. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Two studies on athletes were conducted on elite male soccer players in Taiwan and Italy.

    “One study was conducted on USA collegiate female athletes from different sports [62], one on Greek elite female dancers [51], and two studies on elite male soccer players in Taiwan [88] and Italy [31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [88] Chao J-J, Kao M-F, Chuang C-L, Lu H-K, Wu MC, Chen Y-Y, et al. The bioelectrical impedance analysis with newly predictive equations for measuring segments body composition of elite male football players in Taiwan. 2011. Available from: https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110303696 source
    • cites [31] Campa F, Bongiovanni T, Rossi A, Cerullo G, Casolo A, Martera G, et al. Athletic bioimpedance-based equations underestimate fat free mass components in male elite soccer players: development and validation of new soccer-specific predictive models. J Transl Med. 2023;21:912. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    One study on athletes considered Italian paddle players.

    “One study con considered Italian paddle players [48].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] Mauro M, Toselli S, De Giorgi S, Heinrich KM, Di Gioia G, Moretti B, et al. New regression models to predict fat mass in intermediate-level male padel players. Heliyon. 2023;9: e18719. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The procedures for BIA were updated in 2004 and further in 2020 for athletes.

    “the procedures for BIA were updated in 2004 [15] and further in 2020 for athletes [2].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [15] Kyle UG, Bosaeus I, De Lorenzo AD, Deurenberg P, Elia M, Manuel Gomez J, et al. Bioelectrical impedance analysis-part II: utilization in clinical practice. Clin Nutr. 2004;23:1430–53. source
    • cites [2] Campa F, Toselli S, Mazzilli M, Gobbo LA, Coratella G. Assessment of body composition in athletes: a narrative review of available methods with special reference to quantitative and qualitative bioimpedance analysis. Nutrients. 2021;13:1620. source

      Section 5, “BIA Evaluation Procedures” (page unavailable), provides BIA measurement recommendations for athletes and says earlier recommendations for general and pediatric populations had not been implemented for athletes. It does not say the athlete-specific procedures were updated in 2020; this source was published in 2021. The 2004 clause is attached to a different citation and is not judged here. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    The selected studies on people with diseases included European and Asian male and female participants.

    “The selected studies included European [35, 40, 56, 64, 65, 98] and Asian [41, 99] male and female participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [35] Jiménez A, Omaña W, Flores L, Coves MJ, Bellido D, Perea V, et al. Prediction of whole-body and segmental body composition by bioelectrical impedance in morbidly obese subjects. Obes Surg. 2012;22:587–93. source
    • cites [40] Scafoglieri A, Clarys JP, Bauer JM, Verlaan S, Van Malderen L, Vantieghem S, et al. Predicting appendicular lean and fat mass with bioelectrical impedance analysis in older adults with physical function decline—The PROVIDE study. Clin Nutr. 2017;36:869–75. source
    • cites [56] Scalfi L, Bedogni G, Marra M, Di Biase G, Caldara A, Severi S, et al. The prediction of total body water from bioelectrical impedance in patients with anorexia nervosa. Br J Nutr. 1997;78:357–65. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Table 3 reports the characteristics of 19 predictive equations developed in 11 studies on athletes.

    “Table 3 reports the characteristics of the 19 predictive equations developed in 11 studies on athletes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    The largest participant number among adult studies occurred in one Chinese study.

    “Although most of the studies (n = 4) were conducted in the USA [34, 42, 54, 82], the largest participant number occurred in one Chinese study [81].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Xu H-Q, Liu J-M, Zhang X, Xue Y-T, Shi J-P, Chen W, et al. Estimation of skeletal muscle mass by bioimpedance and differences among skeletal muscle mass indices for assessing sarcopenia. Clin Nutr. 2021;40:2308–18. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    One study on elderly subjects provided a predictive equation using bioelectrical parameters measured with BIS at a frequency of 5 kHz.

    “One study provided a predictive equations using bioelectrical parameters measured with BIS using at a frequency of 5 kHz.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Table 4 reports the characteristics of 26 predictive equations developed in 17 studies on elderly subjects.

    “Table 4 reports the characteristics of the 26 predictive equations developed in 17 studies on elderly subjects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The remaining adult studies involved European, Eastern Asian, and Australian populations with a balanced number of male and female participants.

    “The remaining studies involved European [50, 52, 71, 77, 101], Eastern Asian [47, 78], and Australian [66] populations with a balanced number of male and female participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [50] Kontogianni MD, Panagiotakos DB, Skopouli FN. Does body mass index reflect adequately the body fat content in perimenopausal women? Maturitas. 2005;51:307–13. source
    • cites [52] Heitmann BL. Evaluation of body fat estimated from body mass index, skinfolds and impedance. A comparative study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1990;44:831–7.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [71] Kanellakis S, Skoufas E, Karaglani E, Ziogos G, Koutroulaki A, Loukianou F, et al. Development and validation of a bioelectrical impedance prediction equation estimating fat free mass in Greek - Caucasian adult population. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2020;36:166–70. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Table 5 reports the characteristics of 16 predictive equations developed in 8 studies on subjects with diseases.

    “Table 5 reports the characteristics of the 16 predictive equations developed in 8 studies on subjects with diseases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Most studies on adults (n = 4) were conducted in the USA.

    “Although most of the studies (n = 4) were conducted in the USA [34, 42, 54, 82], the largest participant number occurred in one Chinese study [81].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [34] Jakicic JM, Wing RR, Lang W. Bioelectrical impedance analysis to assess body composition in obese adult women: the effect of ethnicity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord J Int Assoc Study Obes. 1998;22:243–9. source
    • cites [42] Lukaski HC, Bolonchuk WW. Estimation of body fluid volumes using tetrapolar bioelectrical impedance measurements. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1988;59:1163–9.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [54] Zillikens MC, Conway JM. Estimation of total body water by bioelectrical impedance analysis in blacks. Am J Hum Biol. 1991;3:25–32. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Two of the studies on subjects under 18 years old were conducted in the USA and involved no female participants.

    “Two of these studies were conducted in the USA, where no female participants were involved [55, 76], while the remaining 12 studies were performed in different countries around the world with both sexes included [37, 43–45, 57–59, 72–75, 100].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [55] Guo SS, Khoury PR, Specker B, Heubi J, Chumlea WC, Siervogel RM, et al. Prediction of fat-free mass in black and white pre-adolescent and adolescent girls from anthropometry and impedance. Am J Hum Biol. 1993;5:735–45. source
    • cites [76] Morrison JA, Guo SS, Specker B, Chumlea WC, Yanovski SZ, Yanovski JA. Assessing the body composition of 6–17-year-old Black and White girls in field studies. Am J Hum Biol. 2001;13:249–54. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Two studies on athletes recruited adolescents from various sport disciplines.

    “Four studies involved Portuguese male and female participants from different sport disciplines [39, 69, 84, 87], while two studies recruited male Brazilian army cadets [85] considered as very active individuals [103] and adolescents from various sport disciplines [104].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [104] Koury JC, Ribeiro MA, Massarani FA, Vieira F, Marini E. Fat-free mass in adolescent athletes: accuracy of bioimpedance equations and identification of new predictive equations. Nutrition. 2019;60:59–65. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    One study on athletes was conducted on Greek elite female dancers.

    “One study was conducted on USA collegiate female athletes from different sports [62], one on Greek elite female dancers [51], and two studies on elite male soccer players in Taiwan [88] and Italy [31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Yannakoulia M, Keramopoulos A, Tsakalakos N, Matalas AL. Body composition in dancers: the bioelectrical impedance method. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32:228–34. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Four studies on athletes involved Portuguese male and female participants from different sport disciplines.

    “Four studies involved Portuguese male and female participants from different sport disciplines [39, 69, 84, 87], while two studies recruited male Brazilian army cadets [85] considered as very active individuals [103] and adolescents from various sport disciplines [104].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [39] Matias CN, Santos DA, Júdice PB, Magalhães JP, Minderico CS, Fields DA, et al. Estimation of total body water and extracellular water with bioimpedance in athletes: a need for athlete-specific prediction models. Clin Nutr. 2016;35:468–74. source
    • cites [69] Matias CN, Campa F, Santos DA, Lukaski H, Sardinha LB, Silva AM. Fat-free mass bioelectrical impedance analysis predictive equation for athletes using a 4-compartment model. Int J Sports Med. 2021;42:27–32. source
    • cites [84] Matias CN, Campa F, Cavaca M, Paoli A, Teixeira FJ. Fat-free mass estimation in male elite futsal players: Development and validation of a new bioelectrical impedance-based predictive equation. Nutrition. 2023;107:111931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2022.111931 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    One study on athletes was conducted on USA collegiate female athletes from different sports.

    “One study was conducted on USA collegiate female athletes from different sports [62], one on Greek elite female dancers [51], and two studies on elite male soccer players in Taiwan [88] and Italy [31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] Fornetti WC, Pivarnik JM, Foley JM, Fiechtner JJ. Reliability and validity of body composition measures in female athletes. J Appl Physiol. 1999;87:1114–22. source

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingcitation

    Four adult equations were developed with multifrequency devices mixing frequencies sampled at 50 and 250 kHz.

    “All these equations were developed at a single frequency of 50 kHz, with the exception of four equations [66, 81] developed with a multifrequency devices that used bioelectrical parameters measured only at 50 kHz [66], as well as mixing frequencies sampled at 50 and 250 kHz [81].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Xu H-Q, Liu J-M, Zhang X, Xue Y-T, Shi J-P, Chen W, et al. Estimation of skeletal muscle mass by bioimpedance and differences among skeletal muscle mass indices for assessing sarcopenia. Clin Nutr. 2021;40:2308–18. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Most predictive equations predominantly include measures obtained at a single frequency of 50 kHz.

    “most predictive equations predominantly include measures obtained at a single frequency of 50 kHz.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The standard error is often reported as absolute values of body mass, and this does not take into account how much each error is related to the total body mass.

    “the standard error is often reported as absolute values of body mass, and this does not take into account how much each error is related to the total body mass.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Exclusion criteria included articles aimed at developing predictive equations without recognized reference techniques or considering a body composition assessment based on a two-component model for FM and FFM.

    “Articles aimed at developing predictive equations without recognized reference techniques or considering a body composition assessment based on a two-component model for FM and FFM.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Inclusion criteria were peer-reviewed articles that developed at least one predictive equation for estimating body mass components using BIA and were accessible in English in full text.

    “The inclusion criteria were as follows:Peer-reviewed articles that developed at least one predictive equation for estimating body mass components (i.e., FM, FFM, TBW, BCM, LSM, and SMM) using BIA.Accessible in English in full text.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The presence of many isolated predictive equations in the literature makes the correct choice challenging, since the user may not distinguish its appropriateness.

    “However, the presence of many isolated predictive equations in the literature makes the correct choice challenging, since the user may not distinguish its appropriateness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The review excluded studies if non-criterion methods were employed or if the developed predictive equations involved mixed populations without specific codes or variables in the regression model.

    “The studies were excluded if non-criterion methods were employed or if the developed predictive equations involved mixed populations without specific codes or variables in the regression model.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Exclusion criteria included articles aimed at validating predictive equations.

    “Articles aimed at validating predictive equations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Two independent researchers conducted systematic searches in Scopus and PubMed on December 22th, 2023, identifying potential eligible studies without any restriction related to year of publication.

    “The two independent researchers (F.C. and Z.N.) conducted systematic searches in Scopus, and PubMed on December 22th, 2023, identifying potential eligible studies without any restriction related to year of publication.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Exclusion criteria included research protocols, theses/dissertations, abstracts, letters to the editor, case reports, book chapters, guidelines, position papers, and unpublished works.

    “Research protocols, theses/dissertations, abstracts, letters to the editor, case reports, book chapters, guidelines, position papers, and unpublished works.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The search query included combinations of at least one term identifying BIA, with at least one term regarding study design, a term regarding reference techniques, and a term referring to body composition.

    “A search query included combinations of at least one of the terms identifying BIA, with at least one of the terms regarding the study design, a term regarding reference techniques, and a term referring to body composition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The review was registered in PROSPERO with code CRD42023467894.

    “Registration code in PROSPERO: CRD42023467894.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of the included studies with the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS-2).

    “Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of the included studies with the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (Quadas-2) [33].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Whiting PF. QUADAS-2: a revised tool for the quality assessment of diagnostic accuracy studies. Ann Internal Med. 2011;155(8):529. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-155-8-201110180-00009. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Wang et al. presented a procedure based on a four-component model that is currently considered the state-of-art method for determining FFM and FM.

    “For example, Wang et al. [3] presented a procedure based on a four-component model that is currently considered the state-of-art method for determining FFM and FM.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Wang Z, Pi-Sunyer FX, Kotler DP, Wielopolski L, Withers RT, Pierson RNJ, et al. Multicomponent methods: evaluation of new and traditional soft tissue mineral models by in vivo neutron activation analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76:968–74. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Exclusion criteria included articles where the characteristics of the BIA devices (e.g., technology and sampling frequency) were not available.

    “Articles where the characteristics of the BIA devices (e.g., technology and sampling frequency) were not available.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Differences in quality assessment were resolved through discussions and consultations with a third researcher.

    “Differences were resolved through discussions and consultations with a third researcher.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Exclusion criteria included articles where predictive equations were developed by mixing different populations without including variables such as sex, maturity status, or age in the development of regression models.

    “Articles where predictive equations were developed by mixing different populations without including variables such as sex, maturity status, or age in the development of regression models.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Predicting body mass components by assuming constant hydration of FFM (TBW/FFM = 0.73) or neglecting the potential variation in FFM and FM density cannot be considered a valid approach for assessing body composition.

    “With these procedures available to researchers, predicting body mass components by assuming constant hydration of FFM (i.e., TBW/FFM = 0.73) or neglecting the potential variation in FFM and FM density [6] cannot be considered as a valid approach for assessing body composition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Lohman TG, Milliken LA. ACSM’s body composition assessment. Human Kinetics: Leeds; 2020.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Abstracts were screened for potential inclusion by two authors and a third author when there was a disagreement between the first two.

    “Abstracts identified from the literature searches were screened for potential inclusion by two authors (F.C. and Z.N.) and a third author (G.C.) when there was a disagreement between the first two.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Some variables not directly estimated by BIA (e.g., FM and ICW) can be easily derived as the difference between body mass and FFM (for FM) or total water and ECW (for ICW).

    “even though some variables are not directly estimated by the BIA (e.g., FM and ICW), these can be easily derived as the difference between the body mass and the FFM (for FM) or the total water and the ECW (for ICW).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The utilization of multicomponent models to estimate body composition may be susceptible to error propagation, stemming from the use of multiple methods for reference body composition values.

    “the utilization of multicomponent models to estimate body composition may be susceptible to error propagation, stemming from the use of multiple methods for reference body composition values.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These BIA devices (hand to hand and leg to leg) predominantly employ procedures of low quality, often unknown, and lacking scrutiny, with equations typically owned by manufacturers.

    “implying that these BIA devices predominantly employ procedures of low quality, often unknown, and lacking scrutiny, with equations typically owned by manufacturers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
43 of 43

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Reference values and BIA-based predictive equations need to be population- and technology-specific.

    “Given the necessity for reference values and BIA-based predictive equations to be population- and technology-specific”
1 of 1

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Disease-group technology counts exceed the total

    Minor

    The reported 14 foot-to-hand and eight segmental equations sum to 22, not the stated total of 16.

    Reported 16 · recomputed 22

  • US studies described as having no girls list girls only

    Minor

    The discussion says the two US studies [55, 76] involved no female participants. Table 1 identifies participants in both corresponding studies as girls.

  • Adult age range excludes ages in the adult table

    Minor

    The participants section defines the adult group as ages 18-65, but Table 2 includes an adult study with participants aged 18-96.

  • Athlete study classified as both SF-BIA and MF-BIA

    Minor

    The athlete summary assigns four equations from one study to MF-BIA, while Table 3 places the four-equation Chao et al. study under SF-BIA.

  • Study [50] receives two applicability ratings

    Minor

    Study [50] appears in both the high-concern range [42-59] and the unclear-concern list for applicability.

  • Four studies are described as three

    Minor

    The sentence says three studies did not specify participants' sex, but it lists four distinct cited studies: [70], [52], [71], and [65].

  • Elderly SF-BIA equation count changes

    Minor

    The Table 4 introduction reports 17 SF-BIA equations, but the elderly discussion reports 16.

7 of 7

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 110 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Kourkoumelis N, Grujic VR, Grabez M, Vidic A, Siksna I, Lazda I, et al. New bioelectrical impedance analysis equations for children and adolescents based on the deuterium dilution technique. Clin Nutr. 2021;44:402–9.
  2. Sardinha LB, Rosa GB, Hetherington-Rauth M, Correia IR, Magalhães JP, Silva AM, et al. Development and validation of bioelectrical impedance prediction equations estimating regional lean soft tissue mass in middle-aged adults. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2023;77:202–11. · DOI · Paper page
  3. Campa F, Toselli S, Mazzilli M, Gobbo LA, Coratella G. Assessment of Body Composition in Athletes: A Narrative Review of Available Methods with Special Reference to Quantitative and Qualitative Bioimpedance Analysis. Nutrients. 2021;13(5):1620. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13051620 · DOI · Paper page

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Campa, F., Coratella, G., Cerullo, G., Noriega, Z., Francisco, R., Charrier, D., Irurtia, A., Lukaski, H., Silva, A. M., & Paoli, A.
Affiliations
  • University of Padua (IT)
  • University of Milan (IT)
  • Institut Nacional d'Educació Física de Catalunya (ES)
  • University of North Dakota (US)
  • University of Lisbon (PT)
Corresponding author
Campa, Francesco
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Translational Medicine
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2024-05-29
Volume
22
Issue
1
Pages
515-515
ISSN
1479-5876 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1186/s12967-024-05272-x
PMC
PMC11137940
OpenAlex
W4399123964
Cited by
80
References
110
Citations by year
2026: 31 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 9
FWCI
6.97
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Translational Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca (Universita Degli Studi Di Milano) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Padua Research Archive (University of Padova) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Università degli Studi di Padova
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Body Composition Measurement Techniques
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electrical and Bioimpedance Tomography
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Nutrition and Health in Aging
Keywords
body composition, bioelectrical impedance analysis, prediction equations, fat mass, fat-free mass, total body water, extracellular water, body cell mass
MeSH terms
Adult, Body Composition, Female, Humans

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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