The DOI matches its Crossref record; 233 of the 243 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 8 of the 107 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Sexual assault (SA) is a common and deleterious form of trauma. Over 40years of research on its impact has suggested that SA has particularly severe effects on a variety of forms of psychopathology, and has highlighted unique aspects of SA as a form of trauma that contribute to these outcomes. The goal of this meta-analytic review was to synthesize the empirical literature from 1970 to 2014 (reflecting 497 effect sizes) to understand the degree to which (a) SA confers general risk for psychological dysfunction rather than specific risk for posttraumatic stress, and (b) differences in studies and samples account for variation in observed effects. Results indicate that people who have been sexually assaulted report significantly worse psychopathology than unassaulted comparisons (average Hedges' g=0.61). SA was associated with increased risk for all forms of psychopathology assessed, and relatively stronger associations were observed for posttraumatic stress and suicidality. Effects endured across differences in sample demographics. The use of broader SA operationalizations (e.g., including incapacitated, coerced, or nonpenetrative SA) was not associated with differences in effects, although including attempted SA in operationalizations resulted in lower effects. Larger effects were observed in samples with more assaults involving stranger perpetrators, weapons, or physical injury. In the context of the broader literature, our findings provide evidence that experiencing SA is major risk factor for multiple forms of psychological dysfunction across populations and assault types.
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Claims the paper makes
68 Own result · 59 No full text of the sources · 26 Own interpretation · 20 Own method · 12 Sources not found · 5 Not checked yet · 5 No basis given · 4 Couldn’t confirm · 2 Supported · 1 Supported so far · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“existing systematic quantitative and qualitative reviews of the impact of SA have limited their scope to childhood SA (Chen et al., 2010; Smolak & Murnen, 2002) or adult SA (Campbell et al., 2009).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen et al., 2010 source
- Could not verifycites Smolak & Murnen, 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Two searches of Smolak and Murnen’s 2002 paper returned no full-text snippets. Its title establishes that it examines child sexual abuse and eating disorders, but does not establish the broader claim that existing reviews were limited to childhood or adult sexual assault. An unscoped match in “An ecological approach to understanding the impact of sexual violence” (score 0.808) discusses separate reviews of child and adult sexual violence, but does not establish that the claim was taken from that paper rather than the cited one. The evidence is insufficient to confirm or confidently reattribute the claim. (LLM, conf=0.64)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campbell et al., 2009 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“evidence from cross-national epidemiological studies indicates that SA is more strongly associated with suicidality than other forms of trauma, and this effect appears to be independent of co-occurring disorders (Stein et al., 2010).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > What Forms of Psychopathology are Associated with Sexual Assault?
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Stein et al., 2010 source
The Discussion (page not provided) reports a particularly strong association between sexual violence and suicide ideation or attempt in multivariate models. It also says the pattern was not mediated by mental disorders, supporting the claim about co-occurring disorders. (LLM, conf=0.91)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This is consistent with past epidemiological studies that have controlled for other risk factors (Ullman & Brecklin, 2002; Stein et al., 2010).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > What Forms of Psychopathology are Associated with Sexual Assault?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ullman & Brecklin, 2002 source
- Supportedcites Stein et al., 2010 source
The Results section (Multivariate associations of traumatic events with lifetime suicidal behavior; page unavailable) reports that, after controlling for other traumatic events, sexual violence remained associated with suicide ideation and attempts. The Methods section (Analysis methods; page unavailable) also lists demographic factors, parental psychopathology, and childhood adversities among the model controls. This supports the citing sentence’s description of an epidemiological study that controlled for other risk factors. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effects endured across differences in sample demographics.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Larger effects were observed in samples with more assaults involving stranger perpetrators, weapons, or physical injury.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Larger effects were observed in samples with more assaults involving stranger perpetrators, weapons, or physical injury.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Broader SA operationalizations (e.g., including incapacitated, coerced, or nonpenetrative SA) were not associated with differences in effects, although including attempted SA in operationalizations resulted in lower effects.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SA was associated with increased risk for all forms of psychopathology assessed, and stronger associations were observed for posttraumatic stress and suicidality.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results indicate that people who have been sexually assaulted report significantly worse psychopathology than unassaulted comparisons (average Hedges’ g=0.61).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Larger effects were observed in samples with more assaults involving stranger perpetrators, weapons, or physical injury.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 33
- It may state two separate claims as one. 44
- The quote only partly states this claim. 6
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Some studies use the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss et al., 2007), which includes a variety of types of SA (e.g., coerced, incapacitated, and forced; attempted and completed; fondling and penetrative SA) and, given its specificity, is considered to be a gold standard self-report measure for assessing SA victimization.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Koss et al., 2007 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Appendix A victimization survey covers fondling, penetration and attempted penetration, with tactics including verbal coercion, incapacitation and force. The “Strengths and Weaknesses Identified” section says the SES is widely used and behaviorally specific, but the paper does not call it a gold standard; it also cautions that treating existing versions as a standardized measure is becoming less justifiable. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“These other disorders are thought to be associated with or exacerbated by a trauma, but are not dependent on an experience of trauma in most cases (Friedman, Resick, Bryant, & Brewin., 2011).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > Is sexual assault a risk factor for PTSD or psychological dysfunction broadly?
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Friedman, Resick, Bryant, & Brewin., 2011 source
In “The A1 (Stressor) Criterion” (page not specified), the paper says depression, other anxiety disorders, and substance use disorder may follow traumatic exposure. It contrasts PTSD’s required trauma criterion with affective and other anxiety disorders that are diagnosed on symptoms alone, supporting the distinction in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.84)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Thirteen effects were identified as outliers, which is in the expected range for a meta-analysis of this size (Viechtbauer & Cheung, 2010). Comparing these outliers to nonoutliers on study characteristics (e.g., country of data collection) using bivariate analyses revealed no significant differences.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Outliers
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites Viechtbauer & Cheung, 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Semantic Scholar returned no full-text snippets for either query in Viechtbauer and Cheung’s “Outlier and influence diagnostics for meta-analysis,” so the reported count and study-characteristic comparison cannot be checked there. The closest unscoped result, “Feasibility of an Electronic Health Tool to Promote Physical Activity in Primary Care,” scores 0.514 but reports 22 outlying participants, not thirteen outlying effects. It is a different topic and does not establish an alternative source for the claim. (LLM, conf=0.73)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Using Egger’s regression test for funnel plot asymmetry in a model with standard error as a predictor (Egger, Davey Smith, Schneider, & Minder, 1997), we found that this asymmetry was not statistically significant, z = 1.69, p = 0.09. Thus, there is no evidence for publication bias based on the funnel plot.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Publication Bias
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites Egger, Davey Smith, Schneider, & Minder, 1997 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Egger et al. (1997), “Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test,” is the source of the test, but the paper-scoped searches returned no snippets supporting the reported z = 1.69 and p = .09 result. The strongest unscoped matches describe results from other meta-analyses with different statistics; for example, “Risky decision-making in major depressive disorder” reports z = 1.17 and p = .241 (score 0.877). These matches do not establish which study produced the claimed result, so misattribution cannot be determined confidently. (LLM, conf=0.70)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Methods for assessing publication bias in multilevel meta-analysis had not yet been developed.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“All effect sizes were in the moderate range (Cohen, 1988), except for disordered eating and substance abuse/dependence, which were in the small range.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites Cohen, 1988 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Cohen’s 1988 book, *Origins and Evolution of the Arab-Zionist Conflict*, is not indexed in Semantic Scholar, so its text could not be checked. Its subject is unrelated to effect sizes for disordered eating and substance abuse/dependence, making the attribution doubtful. Unscoped searches found mental-health papers with only partial, low-scoring matches (highest score 0.553), not the stated result; there is no verified alternative source. (LLM, conf=0.70)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SA was associated with increased risk for all forms of psychopathology assessed, and stronger associations were observed for posttraumatic stress and suicidality.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SA was associated with increased risk for all forms of psychopathology assessed, and stronger associations were observed for posttraumatic stress and suicidality.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For most effects, the measure was previously published (88% of effects) and included multiple items (91% of effects), but fewer were administered via interview (47% of effects) or were explicitly stated to be based on and/or validated against DSM criteria (53% of effects).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, effect sizes did not differ as a function of sample gender, β = −0.02, SE = .06, p = .30.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most studies were conducted in the US (77%) and were published journal articles (76%) or dissertations/theses (20%)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Sample
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the following effects were not significantly different than trauma and stressor-related conditions: obsessive-compulsive conditions, Δg = 0.00, SE = 0.12, p = .98, suicidality, Δg = −0.03, SE = 0.05, p = .54, and bipolar conditions, Δg = −0.06, SE = 0.11, p = .60.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this unconditional model, the heterogeneity within studies (due to differences in domains/measures of psychopathology) was τ22 = 0.04 (SE = 0), and the heterogeneity between studies (controlling for differences in domains/measures of psychopathology), or was τ23 = 0.06 (SE = 0.01). Both were significant at p < .001”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Is Sexual Assault Associated with Psychopathology?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this sample of studies, most operationalized SA narrowly—28% included attempted SA, 44% included fondling/nonpenetrative SA, 34% included coerced SA, and 37% included incapacitated SA.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Average effects were largest for suicidality, g = 0.74, SE = 0.05, k = 38, m = 26, and smallest for substance abuse/dependence, g = 0.37, SE = 0.04, k = 59, m = 33. All domain-level average effect sizes were significantly different from zero (p < .001).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SA assessment quality varied across effects. Most included multiple items (68% of effects), described at least one sex act behaviorally (70% of effects), and specified at least one tactic through which the sex act occurred (68% of effects), but fewer were previously published (46% of effects). Mean percent quality was 0.68 (SD = 0.35).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In our sample, depression was the most common domain studied, k = 129, m = 102, followed by trauma and stressor-related conditions, k = 121, m = 103. The most infrequently-studied domain was bipolar conditions, k = 6, m = 4.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Eighteen effects were missing from the right side of the funnel and no effects were missing from the left side. Including the 18 imputed missing values, the summary effect was 0.63 (SE = 0.03), as compared to a summary effect of 0.56 (SE = 0.03) without these effects using a fixed-effects meta-analysis using the randomly selected published data.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Publication Bias
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Duval & Tweedie, 2000a, 2000b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On average, 24% of assaults involved a stranger perpetrator (SD = 23%, range: 0–90%, k = 90, m = 33), 26% involved physical injury (SD = 13%, range: 11–49%, k = 30, m = 8), and 21% involved the use of a weapon (SD = 23%, range: 2–66%, k = 27, m = 11).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most studies (81%) used comparison groups that had not experienced SA (i.e., no-assault groups), fewer (17%) used comparison groups that had experienced another form of trauma (i.e., other-trauma groups), and very few (1%) used comparison groups that were selected for their lack of trauma experience (i.e., no/low-trauma groups).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The full dataset included k = 497 estimates of effect from 204 sources and m = 195 studies (i.e., independent samples).”
- Also stated in: § Sample · plain
“Aggregating sample sizes across studies (using the minimum N used to calculate effect sizes in a given study), this meta-analysis represents N = 238,623 individuals (study range: 27 to 32,075).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Sample
plainn = 238,623- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § Sample · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compared to effects representing trauma and stressor-related conditions, g = 0.71, SE = 0.03, effect sizes were significantly smaller for depression, Δg = −0.11, SE = 0.03, p < .001, anxiety, Δg = −0.19, SE = 0.03, p < .001, disordered eating, Δg = −0.33, SE = 0.07, p < .001, and substance abuse/dependence, Δg = −0.35, SE = 0.04, p < .001.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In all, we sent 124 requests for additional data, 48 (38.71%) of which yielded usable data, with a total of 108 effects coded from these requests.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Literature Search and Study Retrieval
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SA also appears to be associated with substantially increased risk for bipolar conditions and obsessive-compulsive conditions.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > What Forms of Psychopathology are Associated with Sexual Assault?
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“No other differences were observed.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“An earlier meta-analysis on psychological distress related to interpersonal violence found no difference between SA and other interpersonal trauma types in terms of their level of distress (Weaver & Clum, 1995), but did not compare SA to non-interpersonal traumas.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Weaver & Clum, 1995 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“There is evidence that survivors internalize this stigma, leading to self-blame, shame, and unwillingness to seek help (Kennedy & Prock, 2016).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Research on the Role of Sexual Assault in the Development of Psychopathology: A Brief History
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kennedy & Prock, 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In contrast, one meta-analysis suggested that the association between interpersonal violence and PTSD is not stronger for women than men (Tolin & Foa, 2006)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tolin & Foa, 2006 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In addition, survivors who choose to disclose their assault to friends, relatives, and professionals often experience negative social reactions, such as victim blame, that have been found to increase risk for PTSD in longitudinal research (Ullman & Peter-Hagene, 2014).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Research on the Role of Sexual Assault in the Development of Psychopathology: A Brief History
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ullman & Peter-Hagene, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In a past qualitative review of the relationship of these SA assault characteristics to psychopathology, only physical injury was associated with psychopathology (Campbell et al., 2009).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campbell et al., 2009 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Indeed, in the DSM-5, PTSD was moved out of the anxiety disorders into a new diagnostic category, called “trauma and stressor-related disorders” (APA, 2013).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > Is sexual assault a risk factor for PTSD or psychological dysfunction broadly?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites APA, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“From this work, it is clear that SA remains a highly stigmatized experience (Kennedy & Prock, 2016)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Research on the Role of Sexual Assault in the Development of Psychopathology: A Brief History
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kennedy & Prock, 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This may be because injury increases perceived life threat, which a past meta-analysis has found to predict PTSD across types of trauma (Ozer, Best, Lipsey, & Weiss, 2003).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ozer, Best, Lipsey, & Weiss, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A qualitative review of associations between SA specifically and multiple forms of trauma identified mixed findings regarding the importance of current age in post-SA psychopathology: most studies identified no relationship between age and distress, and several identified either positive or negative associations between age and specific forms of psychopathology (Campbell et al., 2009).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campbell et al., 2009 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“and a review of the impact of intimate partner violence on psychopathology found that rates of depression decline over time (Golding, 1999).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Golding, 1999 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Because SA is thought to have a stronger relationship with psychopathology than other interpersonal forms of trauma (Kessler et al., 1995)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kessler et al., 1995 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Although a past meta-analysis on the relationship between interpersonal violence and distress did not find evidence that indicators of validity were associated with the magnitude of observed effects (Weaver & Clum, 1995)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Weaver & Clum, 1995 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Indeed, an ongoing debate over the appropriate operational definition of SA (Cook, Gidycz, Koss, & Murphy, 2011; Koss, 2011) has centered on concerns that broad definitions of SA may obscure its connection with psychopathology.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > How do differences in study methods and samples alter observed relationships?
What the sources say
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This focus on PTSD is based in a theoretical understanding of PTSD as a unique phenotype arising from trauma that is conceptually different from other disorders that often are seen in trauma survivors (e.g., depression, anxiety disorders) in that its etiology necessarily involves an external trauma event (APA, 2013).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Unresolved Questions in Research on Sexual Assault’s Psychological Impact > Is sexual assault a risk factor for PTSD or psychological dysfunction broadly?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites APA, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“we used a multilevel structural equation modeling procedure using the metaSEM package (Cheung, 2012) in R 3.3.1 (R Development Core Team, 2008) to account for nonindependence of effect sizes.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Analyses
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cheung, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites R Development Core Team, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“However, because many studies assessed SA across the lifespan (i.e., combined child and adolescent/adult), we coded lifetime effects when no separate data for adolescent/adult SA was available to ensure that the population of studies was not overly restricted, consistent with a similar meta-analysis (Brewin et al., 2000).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Literature Search and Study Retrieval
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brewin et al., 2000 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“which makes it particularly important to attempt to minimize publication bias in meta-analyses (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Literature Search and Study Retrieval
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lipsey & Wilson, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The file drawer effect is a perennial problem in the academic literature (Rosenthal, 1979)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Literature Search and Study Retrieval
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rosenthal, 1979 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, studies that compared people who had experienced military SA to those who had not were likely to have included survivors of non-military SA in the no-SA group, and were excluded.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Literature Search and Study Retrieval
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A comparison group was needed to compute an effect size representing risk for psychopathology associated with experiencing SA; comparisons between people who experienced SA were outside of the scope of the analysis.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Literature Search and Study Retrieval
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Every effect was coded by at least two coders (i.e., a primary and secondary coder), but review by three coders was common, and the first author reviewed every effect.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Coding Procedures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Effects with studentized deleted residuals ≥ 2 were considered to be outliers (Viechtbauer & Cheung, 2010). Following Gnambs (2013), these outliers were truncated to the upper bound of the 95% confidence interval of the true effect for the applicable domain of psychopathology”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Outliers
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The variable “operational definition includes both forced and coerced SA or forced SA only” had substantial agreement (κ = 0.77 for first vs. second author and κ = 0.77 for first vs. third author)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Coding Procedures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“We excluded these studies to avoid clinical selection bias (du Fort, Newman, & Bland, 1993), consistent with meta-analyses on related topics (Brewin et al., 2000; Tolin & Foa, 2006).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Literature Search and Study Retrieval
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results suggest that SA is associated with all domains of psychopathology studied, and is more strongly related to suicidality and trauma and stressor-related conditions (and, tentatively, obsessive-compulsive and bipolar conditions) than depression, anxiety, disordered eating, and substance abuse/dependence.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We excluded effects that were based on chart diagnoses or self-reports of past diagnoses made by a clinician, as these captured help-seeking behavior for mental health rather than the existence of the condition itself.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Literature Search and Study Retrieval
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we recorded this information to ensure that we retained only one effect for each form of psychopathology per sample and assigned a shared identification number across effects representing different forms of psychopathology from a single sample.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Literature Search and Study Retrieval
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given the large number of results obtained and the targeted efforts to obtain relevant studies described next, these search terms and databases were deemed sufficiently comprehensive.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Method > Literature Search and Study Retrieval
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, though, the effects for obsessive-compulsive conditions and bipolar conditions were based on a small number of studies and effects and had large confidence intervals.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“past reviews suggest that the impact of interpersonal violence broadly on distress appears to decrease over time (Weaver & Clum, 1995), as does the impact of intimate partner violence on depression (Golding, 1999).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > How do Differences in Study Methods and Samples Alter Observed Effects?
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“results suggest that symptoms decrease rapidly over the first month post-SA for survivors who do not ultimately develop PTSD, but are relatively durable over time for survivors with PTSD (Rothbaum et al., 1992).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > How do Differences in Study Methods and Samples Alter Observed Effects?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rothbaum et al., 1992 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Of the disorders assessed in this analysis, suicidality is explicitly included as part of the diagnostic criteria in DSM-5 for depression only, which evidenced a significantly smaller effect size relative to suicidality (APA, 2013).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > What Forms of Psychopathology are Associated with Sexual Assault?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites APA, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“the broader field of developmental psychopathology has moved away from diathesis-stress models towards gene-by-environment interplay models, in which environments have an interactive, rather than an additive effect on psychopathology (Kendler et al., 1997; Kendler et al., 2003).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > Causal Associations Between Sexual Assault and Psychopathology
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A meta-analysis identified gender differences in the impact of interpersonal violence on distress (Weaver & Clum, 1995), but this previous analysis’s study population lacked representation from men and contained no men-only samples, which could have underestimated the impact of SA on men.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > How do Differences in Study Methods and Samples Alter Observed Effects?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Weaver & Clum, 1995 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“social support has been identified as a correlate of PTSD (Brewin et al., 2000; Ozer et al., 2003).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > How do Differences in Study Methods and Samples Alter Observed Effects?
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Because people who have experienced SA are particularly likely to have also experienced past traumas, like CSA, distress from these multiple traumatic experiences may be cumulative (Arata, 1999).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > Causal Associations Between Sexual Assault and Psychopathology
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arata, 1999 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Although these conditions are typically thought to be highly genetically-based (Etain et al., 2008; Hettema, Neale, & Kendler, 2001)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > What Forms of Psychopathology are Associated with Sexual Assault?
What the sources say
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Although prior meta-analyses found that age at trauma exposure was associated with PTSD (Brewin et al., 2000; Ozer et al., 2003)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > How do Differences in Study Methods and Samples Alter Observed Effects?
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“although having a past trauma generally increased the risk for PTSD in a different meta-analysis, this effect was strongest when the current trauma was interpersonal violence (Ozer et al., 2003).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > How do Differences in Study Methods and Samples Alter Observed Effects?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ozer et al., 2003 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“adult SA was one of the only traumas that did not appear to have a higher frequency or severity of PTSD in women as compared to men”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > How do Differences in Study Methods and Samples Alter Observed Effects?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tolin & Foa, 2006 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This indicates that broadening operational definitions to include attempted SA may reduce effect sizes somewhat, but they are not lowered to the point of inconsequentiality.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > How do Differences in Study Methods and Samples Alter Observed Effects?
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While a past meta-analysis on the relationship between interpersonal violence and distress did not find evidence that indicators of validity were associated with effects, this prior analysis was not limited to diagnostic constructs (Weaver & Clum, 1995).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > How do Differences in Study Methods and Samples Alter Observed Effects?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Weaver & Clum, 1995 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is also unclear whether the study-level moderators (e.g., percent of women in the sample, percent of assaults involving weapons) tested would evidence similar effects in relation to psychopathology when directly comparing survivors with these characteristics.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A limitation of this body of work identified through this review is the use of single-item, unpublished assessments of SA without behaviorally-based descriptions, which fail to capture a large minority of SA survivors (Cook et al., 2011) and appear to overestimate effects.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cook et al., 2011 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“People are more likely to remember events that match their mood at the time of recall (Bower, 1981)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bower, 1981 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such a meta-analysis should include studies without comparison groups, which the current study did not (302 studies were excluded for this reason).”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our sophisticated analytic strategy involving attention to publication bias and dependency in effects increases our confidence in the study findings.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our exhaustive study retrieval strategy led to the identification of a large number of effects, many of which were unpublished, which minimizes publication bias while also increasing confidence in effects.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we did not assess every outcome of SA. Several forms of psychopathology (e.g., personality disorders), externalizing behaviors (e.g., substance use), and problems in living (e.g., health problems), as well as co-occurring problems within and across these domains, were not within the scope of this analysis”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Qualitative reviews in this area tend to be unsystematic.
“Qualitative reviews on this topic tend to be unsystematic, and as such, do not offer a rigorous, thorough picture of the state of the science in this area.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most research on SA and psychopathology has found associations, but some exceptions exist and studies vary in the strength of the association.
“Although the bulk of the research on this topic has identified associations between SA and various forms of psychopathology, exceptions exist, and studies differ with regard to the strength of the association that they identify.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The trauma literature has mainly focused on PTSD, with less attention to other conditions.
“The psychological literature on trauma has primarily focused on posttraumatic stress disorder, although other conditions often observed in traumatized populations (e.g., depression, anxiety, substance use disorders) have received relatively less attention (aside from their co-occurrence with PTSD).”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is substantial variation in how SA is assessed in the field.
“There is significant variation in the field regarding the assessment of SA.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Researchers using the Sexual Experiences Survey differ in which items they use to define SA for analysis.
“However, researchers using the Sexual Experiences Survey vary in terms of the items they use to operationalize SA for analytic purposes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Other researchers create their own measures with different operational definitions.
“Other researchers create their own measures that include varying operational definitions across these dimensions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Some studies use single-item SA measures that leave the definition to participants.
“Still, other studies use single-item measures of SA that refer broadly to “sexual assault” or “rape” and leave the operational definition of these terms to study participants.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Assessments of psychopathology have similar quality issues.
“Similar quality issues are present in assessments of psychopathology.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Any trauma exposure is an environmental stressor that likely raises psychopathology risk.
“Experiencing any trauma is an environmental stressor that is likely to increase risk for psychopathology, therefore, sexually assaulted people should evidence high levels of psychopathology relative to people who have never experienced trauma.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The SA literature is largely divided into childhood SA and adolescent/adult SA research.
“Unlike the broader trauma literature, which generally assesses lifetime exposure to a number of forms of trauma (including SA), the SA literature has been largely siloed into research on childhood SA and adolescent/adult SA (i.e., at or after age 12–15, depending on study definitions).”
The paper relies on this without support.
No meta-analysis has tested the link between race/ethnicity and SA-related psychopathology.
“but no meta-analysis has tested this relationship.”
The paper relies on this without support.
SA is disproportionately experienced by women and young people.
“Generally, because SA is— unlike many other forms of trauma—disproportionately experienced by women and young people”
The paper relies on this without support.
SA survivors who remain in college or professional roles likely represent a higher-functioning subset than the general population.
“it is likely that SA survivors who are able to maintain college enrollment or some other professional role despite trauma exposure are likely to reflect a somewhat higher-functioning subset of survivors relative to the general population (i.e., those most affected by SA may be more likely to withdraw from employment or college enrollment and thus not be reflected in group comparisons).”
The paper relies on this without support.
More eligible unpublished data existed than the review was able to identify.
“Despite our extensive efforts to include unpublished work and the significant number of unpublished effects in our sample (175/500 effects), it is likely that there was still more that we were unable to identify.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Methods for assessing publication bias in multilevel meta-analysis had not yet been developed.
“Because methods for assessing publication bias in multilevel meta-analysis have not yet been developed and so this test treats effect sizes as independent observations, we randomly selected one effect size from every study in our sample to include in this test to avoid unduly weighting studies that contributed more effects.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No-assault comparison groups are mostly composed of people who experienced some other form of trauma.
“It is likely that no-assault comparison groups are comprised mostly of people who experienced some other form of trauma, even though they were not selected for this quality”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentt(443.74) = 4.3reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(443.74) = 4.30, p < .0001”
- Consistentz = 1.69reported p = .09 · recomputed p = .091
“z = 1.69, p = .09”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Abstract
“Larger effects were observed in samples with more assaults involving stranger perpetrators, weapons, or physical injury.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
“Hypothesis 7c was not supported: the percent of stranger perpetrators was unrelated to group differences, β = 0.10, SE = .06, p = .07.”
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
“Compared to effects representing trauma and stressor-related conditions, g = 0.71, SE = 0.03, effect sizes were significantly smaller for depression, Δg = −0.11, SE = 0.03, p < .001, anxiety, Δg = −0.19, SE = 0.03, p < .001, disordered eating, Δg = −0.33, SE = 0.07, p < .001, and substance abuse/dependence, Δg = −0.35, SE = 0.04, p < .001.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
Reported -0.03 · recomputed 0.03
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Publication Bias
“the significant number of unpublished effects in our sample (175/500 effects)”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Sample
“The full dataset included k = 497 estimates of effect from 204 sources and m = 195 studies (i.e., independent samples).”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Discussion > How do Differences in Study Methods and Samples Alter Observed Effects?
“As a result, research on general population samples appears to evidence the greatest differences in psychopathology between assaulted and unassaulted groups.”
§ Sexual assault victimization and psychopathology: A review and meta-analysis > Results > Moderator Analyses: What Accounts for Differences in Observed Effects?
“compared to college samples, only general population samples, Δg = 0.12, SE = .05, p = .01, and mixed samples, Δg = 0.20, SE = .08, p = .02, had significantly higher effect sizes.”
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Changes in Women's Sexual Behavior Following Sexual Assault
Deliramich, A. N., & Gray, M. J. (2008) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445508314642 · Cited by 47
Sexual Coercion, HIV-Related Risk, and Mental Health Among Female Sex Workers in China
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Sexual assault on woman: Its impact on her life and living in society
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Presentation and prevalence of PTSD in a bipolar disorder population: A STEP-BD examination
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Risk for mental disorders associated with sexual assault: a meta-analysis
Dworkin, E. R. (2020) · Trauma, Violence, & Abuse · doi:10.1177/1524838018813198 · Cited by 347
“Group differences in psychopathology between survivors of SA and people who have not been assaulted tend to be smaller in populations selected for specific trait (e.g., college students, people seeking health care) relative to the general population (Dworkin et al., 2017).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationDworkin, E. R., Brill, C. D., & Ullman, S. E. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101750 · Cited by 263
Self-citationSilence, Power, and Inequality: An Intersectional Approach to Sexual Violence
Armstrong, E. A., Gleckman-Krut, M., & Johnson, L. (2018) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041410 · Cited by 303
PTSD in the Year Following Sexual Assault: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies
Dworkin, E. R., Jaffe, A. E., Bedard-Gilligan, M., & Fitzpatrick, S. (2023) · Trauma, Violence, & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380211032213 · Cited by 209
“Sexual assault is associated with heightened risk of posttraumatic stressdisorder (PTSD;Dworkin et al., 2017),which is characterized by reexperiencing (i.”
BackgroundSelf-citationEarly psychological intervention following recent trauma: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Roberts, N. P., Kitchiner, N. J., Kenardy, J., Lewis, C. E., & Bisson, J. I. (2019) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1695486 · Cited by 200
“Numerous studies demonstrate that a range of traumatic experiences can cause psychological difficulties to those exposed (Berger et al., 2012, Brunet, Monson, Liu, & Fikretoglu, 2015; Dworkin, Menon, Bystrynski, & Allen, 2017; Lowe & Galea, 2017; Neria, Nandi, & Galea, 2008).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Dworkin, E. R., Menon, S. V., Bystrynski, J., & Allen, N. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- Corresponding author
- Dworkin, Emily R.
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-08
- Volume
- 56
- Pages
- 65-81
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5576571
- OpenAlex
- W2729334788
- Cited by
- 825
- References
- 243
- Citations by year
- 2026: 114 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 106 · 2023: 97 · 2022: 100 · 2021: 102 · 2020: 123 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 23.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (T32AA007455)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Keywords
- sexual assault, sexual victimization, psychopathology, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidality, trauma, psychological dysfunction, weapons, personal injury, risk factors
- MeSH terms
- Psychological Trauma, Humans, Sex Offenses, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Suicide, Crime Victims
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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