Testosterone levels correspond with increased ventral striatum activation in response to monetary rewards in adolescents

May combine two claims.

There were no significant sex differences in choice selection; both boys and girls selected 'spin' more often in the low-risk condition compared to the high-risk condition, and did so to the same extent.

“No significant sex differences in choice selection were found; both boys and girls selected 'spin' more often in the low-risk (LR) condition compared to the high-risk (HR) condition, and did so to the same extent (boy vs. girl for LR: 91.5% vs. 89.8%, for HR: 31.0% vs. 40.6%), F (1, 48) = .99, p > .05 (Fig. 2).”

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In girls, the model including both age and testosterone was not significant (F(2, 27) = 2.24, p = .126), but there was a positive relation between testosterone and striatal activation (b = .044, t(27) = 2.12, p = .044).

“In girls, the model including both predictors was not significant, F (2, 27) = 2.24, p = .126, however, there was a positive relation between testosterone and striatal activation, b = .044, t (27) = 2.12, p = .044.”

May combine two claims.

Participants showed increased risk taking on low-risk trials compared to high-risk trials, and this pattern was similar for boys and girls.

“As predicted, participants showed increased risk taking on low-risk trials compared to high-risk trials, and this pattern of behavior was similar for boys and girls.”

May combine two claims.

In girls, testosterone level as predictor on the reward > loss contrast did not result in activation at p < .001, but at p < .005, activation was observed in the left ventral striatum at a similar location as in boys.

“This analysis did not result in activation at the threshold p &lt; .001, but when the threshold was lowered to p &lt; .005, activation was observed in the left ventral striatum at a similar location as in boys (Fig. 4A, right panel).”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

In the left nucleus accumbens ROI, follow-up tests confirmed the whole-brain analyses and resulted in positive correlations between testosterone and activation for both boys (r = .75) and girls (r = .34), both p's < .05.

“In girls this relation was only found at a less stringent threshold but was statistically confirmed using an independent sphere ROI analysis.”

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Estradiol levels and DHEA levels did not differ significantly between boys and girls.

“Estradiol levels and DHEA levels did not differ significantly between boys and girls (both p 's &gt; .05).”

May combine two claims.

In boys, the model predicting striatal activation by age and testosterone was significant (F(2, 11) = 5.71, p = .01), and only testosterone level explained a significant proportion of the variance in activation in the ventral striatum (b = .031, t(11) = 2.8, p = .017).

“The model in which striatal activation was predicted by age and testosterone was significant in boys, F (2, 11) = 5.71, p = .01, and tests of the individual regression coefficients showed that only testosterone level explained a significant proportion of the variance in activation in the ventral striatum, b = .031, t (11) = 2.8, p = .017.”

May combine two claims.

Average PDS score did not differ significantly between boys and girls, and average PBIP score did not differ significantly between boys and girls.

“Average PDS score did not differ significantly between boys (mean = 2.0) and girls (mean = 2.5, p &gt; .05), and similarly average PBIP score demonstrated no significant differences between boys (mean = 3.0) and girls (mean = 3.1, p &gt; .05; Table 1).”

May combine two claims.

Age as a single predictor did not account for a significant proportion of the variance in activation of the ventral striatum in boys (R2 = .26, F(1, 12) = 4.18, p = .06) nor in girls (R2 = .00, F(1, 28) = .00, p = .99).

“Results of this analysis showed that age as a single predictor did not account for a significant proportion of the variance in activation of the ventral striatum in boys, R 2 = .26, F (1, 12) = 4.18, p = .06, nor in girls, R 2 = .00, F (1, 28) = .00, p = .99.”

May combine two claims.

Adolescents showed no sex differences in reward processing; boys and girls displayed similar bilateral activation of the striatum.

“Adolescents showed no sex differences in reward processing; boys and girls displayed similar bilateral activation of the striatum.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

For the contrast reward > loss, regions of activation for all participants included the dorsal and ventral striatum and the medial orbitofrontal cortex; for boys and girls separately, activation included the bilateral striatum in both groups.

“When participants chose to take a risk and won (i.e., received a monetary reward), they recruited brain areas including the dorsal and ventral striatum, and the medial orbitofrontal cortex (OFC).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The preference for risk taking peaks at around age 14.

“One study that replicated this developmental peak in risky behavior in an experimental setting showed that the preference for risk taking peaks at around age 14 (Burnett et al., 2010).”

• cites Burnett et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The striatum is sensitive to monetary rewards.

“The adult literature using such paradigms has shown that the striatum is sensitive to (monetary) rewards (Breiter et al., 2001; Delgado, 2007; McClure et al., 2004).”

• cites Breiter et al., 2001 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Delgado, 2007 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites McClure et al., 2004 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Sensation seeking peaks in adolescence, and girls reach their peak at a younger age than boys.

“Sensation seeking not only peaks in adolescence, but also girls reach their peak at a younger age than boys (Romer and Hennessy, 2007), possibly due to sex differences in pubertal maturation.”

• cites Romer and Hennessy, 2007Not checked yet

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Sensation seeking is a personality trait related to risk-taking behavior.

“Sensation seeking is regarded as a personality trait that is related to risk-taking behavior (Llewellyn, 2008).”

• cites Llewellyn, 2008Not checked yet

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Sensation seeking appears to increase in association with pubertal maturation.

“There has been particular interest in sensation seeking which appears to increase in association with pubertal maturation (Steinberg, 2008; Forbes and Dahl, 2010).”

• cites Steinberg, 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Forbes and Dahl, 2010Not checked yet

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In adults, higher testosterone levels result in increased striatal activity during reward anticipation.

“Another study in adults that administered testosterone and focused on neural processing during reward anticipation showed that higher testosterone levels resulted in increased striatal activity (Hermans et al., 2010).”

• cites Hermans et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Competition is associated with increased testosterone levels, and winning as opposed to losing a monetary reward during a hypothetical competition is associated with a higher increase of testosterone levels.

“These findings are also in line with previous literature showing that competition is associated with increased testosterone levels, and more importantly, winning as opposed to losing a monetary reward during a hypothetical competition is associated with a higher increase of testosterone levels (Archer, 2006).”

• cites Archer, 2006Not checked yet

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High basal levels of testosterone are associated with neurochemical and behavioral changes in response to winning as opposed to losing, whereas low basal levels of testosterone are not.

“Furthermore, high basal levels of testosterone are associated with neurochemical and behavioral changes in response to winning as opposed to losing, whereas low basal levels of testosterone are not (Mehta et al., 2008)”

• cites Mehta et al., 2008Not checked yet

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Brain areas including the dorsal and ventral striatum and medial orbitofrontal cortex play a key role in reward processing.

“These brain areas play a key role in reward processing (Haber and Knutson, 2010).”

• cites Haber and Knutson, 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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Neuroanatomical studies have shown that gonadal hormones at puberty are associated with changes in both gray and white matter, with testosterone and estradiol showing differential effects in adolescent boys and girls.

“Furthermore, neuroanatomical studies have shown that gonadal hormones at puberty are associated with changes in both gray and white matter, with testosterone and estradiol showing differential effects in adolescent boys and girls (Peper et al., 2011).”

• cites Peper et al., 2011Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Because the time-course, physiology, hormones, and component physical changes of pubertal maturation differ markedly for boys and girls, all analyses were performed separately for each sex.

“Because the time-course, physiology, hormones, and component physical changes of pubertal maturation differ markedly for boys and girls (Dorn et al., 2006), all analyses were performed separately for each sex”

• cites Dorn et al., 2006 sourceNot checked yet

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In the context of uncertainty (e.g., gambling task), the dorsal striatum responds to valence (reward or loss) and magnitude of outcomes, showing strongest activation to large monetary rewards and weakest activation to large monetary losses.

“previous studies have shown that in the context of uncertainty (e.g., gambling task) also the dorsal striatum responds to valence (reward or loss) and magnitude of outcomes, showing strongest activation to large monetary rewards, and weakest activation to large monetary losses (Delgado et al., 2003).”

• cites Delgado et al., 2003 sourceNot checked yet

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Hormone levels were relatively stable across two days and provided a reliable indicator of basal hormone level.

“The mean hormone levels across the three samples that were collected each day correlated highly between the two days for both testosterone ( r = .93, p &lt; .001), estradiol ( r = .86, p &lt; .001), and DHEA ( r = .83, p &lt; .001), indicating that hormone levels were relatively stable across days, and hence a reliable indicator of the participant's basal hormone level.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the Iowa gambling task, higher testosterone levels lead participants to choose more often from card decks that resulted in large monetary rewards, despite a net monetary loss.

“More specifically, when performing the Iowa gambling task, higher testosterone levels lead participants to choose more often from card decks that resulted in large (as opposed to moderate) monetary rewards, despite a net monetary loss.”

• cites Van Honk et al., 2004Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Reward processing changes with menstrual cycle phase.

“However, it has been found that reward processing changes with menstrual cycle phase (Dreher et al., 2007).”

• cites Dreher et al., 2007 sourceNot checked yet

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The medial OFC specifically responds to abstract rewards, such as monetary gain.

“The medial OFC specifically responds to abstract rewards, such as monetary gain (Kringelbach and Rolls, 2004).”

• cites Kringelbach and Rolls, 2004Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Changes in gonadal hormone levels are associated with changes in the magnitude and/or extent of the response to reward, specifically in the striatum.

“This model suggests that changes in gonadal hormone levels (or different levels of puberty) are associated with changes in the magnitude and/or extent of the response to reward, specifically in the striatum.”

• cites Nelson et al., 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The adolescent inclination to take risks might be associated with increased sensitivity to rewards, as indicated by an adolescent-specific peak in activation of the striatum.

“suggesting that the adolescent inclination to take risks might be associated with increased sensitivity to rewards, as indicated by an adolescent-specific peak in activation of the striatum.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The exact nature of changes in affective processing, the relation with gonadal hormones, and how they affect motivational behavior in adolescents is not yet well understood.

“However, the exact nature of these changes, the relation with gonadal hormones, and how they affect motivational behavior in adolescents is not yet well understood (Doremus-Fitzwater et al., 2010).”

• cites Doremus-Fitzwater et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Testosterone contributes to a shift to less punishment sensitivity and relatively greater reward sensitivity.

“This was interpreted as testosterone contributing to a shift to less punishment sensitivity and relatively greater reward sensitivity (Van Honk et al., 2004).”

• cites Van Honk et al., 2004Not checked yet

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Individual differences in hormones at puberty are related to the way adolescents respond to reward, which can ultimately affect risk-taking behavior.

“suggesting that individual differences in hormones at puberty are related to the way adolescents respond to reward, which can ultimately affect risk-taking behavior.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Individual differences in reward-related striatal activation affect risk-taking behavior.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The sample of healthy adolescents aged 10-16 is representative of the broader adolescent population.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In response to rewards, adolescents recruit similar brain regions (including the striatum) as children and adults.

“Developmental studies have shown that in response to rewards, adolescents recruit similar brain regions (including the striatum) as children and adults.”

• cites Geier and Luna, 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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Both functional and structural changes in the brain are associated with individual differences in gonadal hormone levels at puberty.

“These findings suggest that both functional and structural changes in the brain are associated with individual differences in gonadal hormone levels at puberty.”

May combine two claims.

It is unlikely that the absence of sex differences in risk taking is related to small rewards per se; rather, it is likely that the absence of a forced gamble results in different patterns of risk taking.

“Thus, it is unlikely that the absence of sex differences is related to small rewards per se, but rather, it is likely that the absence of a forced gamble results in different patterns of risk taking.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Exogenous administration of testosterone increases the likelihood of disadvantageous or risky decision-making in adults.

“Previous studies have shown in adults that the exogenous administration of testosterone increases the likelihood of disadvantageous or risky decision-making.”

• cites Van Honk et al., 2004Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Nelson's social information processing network (SIPN) model predicts that affective changes (e.g., changes in reward processing) are associated with changes in limbic brain regions, such as the nucleus accumbens, that are specifically influenced by gonadal hormones.

“These findings are in line with Nelson's social information processing network (SIPN) model, which predicts that affective changes (e.g., changes in reward processing) are associated with changes in limbic brain regions, such as the nucleus accumbens, that are specifically influenced by gonadal hormones (Nelson et al., 2005).”

• cites Nelson et al., 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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In adolescents at different pubertal stages, higher natural testosterone levels correspond with increased striatal activity during reward anticipation, but with decreased striatal activity during reward outcome processing.

“Similar results were found in adolescents at different pubertal stages; the natural occurrence of higher testosterone levels corresponded with increased striatal activity during reward anticipation, but with decreased striatal activity during reward outcome processing (Forbes et al., 2010)”

• cites Forbes et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Average head movement was .09 mm for boys and .09 mm for girls, with no significant sex differences.

“Average head movement was .09 mm (SD = .05) for boys and .09 mm (SD = .05) for girls, and there were no significant sex differences in head motion ( p &gt; .05).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The extent to which these brain regions are recruited differs across age groups.

“However, the extent to which these brain regions are recruited differs across age groups (Geier and Luna, 2009).”

• cites Geier and Luna, 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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At the moment of receiving a reward, the striatum response is stronger in adolescents compared to children and adults.

“However, the convergence of evidence appears to support the model that specifically at the moment of receiving a reward, the striatum response is stronger in adolescents compared to children and adults (Galvan, 2010)”

• cites Galvan, 2010Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Changes in affective processing during adolescence may be associated with the increase of gonadal hormones at puberty that influence neural processing in the limbic brain regions, such as the striatum.

“According to Nelson et al. (2005) changes in affective processing during adolescence (e.g., reward processing and reorientation to peer social stimuli) may be associated with the increase of gonadal hormones at puberty that influence neural processing in the limbic brain regions, such as the striatum (see SIPN model: Nelson et al., 2005).”

• cites Nelson et al., 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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The ventral striatum has been associated with coding for subjective value of reward.

“Whereas the ventral striatum has been associated with coding for subjective value of reward (Peters and Büchel, 2010)”

• cites Peters and Büchel, 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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The relation between testosterone and striatal activity differs depending on the phase of risky decision making.

“suggesting that the relation between testosterone and striatal activity differs depending on the phase of risky decision making.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The neural response to reward may have represented different phases of reward processing in these two paradigms, possibly explaining the discrepancy in results.

“Thus, the neural response to reward may have represented different phases of reward processing in these two paradigms, possibly explaining the discrepancy in results.”

May combine two claims.

Age was correlated with puberty score and testosterone level, possibly confounding the relation between testosterone and striatum activation.

“One limitation of this study calls for cautious interpretation of the findings, namely that age was correlated with puberty score and testosterone level, possibly confounding the relation between testosterone and striatum activation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The absence of a robust relation between gonadal hormones and reward-related activation in girls might be due to girls having less stable hormone levels due to the menstrual cycle, or possible measurement errors.

“A possible explanation for the absence of a robust relation between gonadal hormones and reward-related activation in girls, despite showing similar neural responses to reward compared to boys, might be that girls have less stable hormone levels due to the menstrual cycle, or possible measurement errors which are summarized below.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Estradiol is a more reliable measure of pubertal development in girls.

“Results for estradiol, a more reliable measure of pubertal development in girls (Shirtcliff et al., 2009), also showed a positive relation with reward-related activation in the dorsal striatum, DLPFC, and medial PFC, although again at a less stringent threshold.”

• cites Shirtcliff et al., 2009Not checked yet

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Estrogen-replacement therapy in postmenopausal women protects against cognitive decline across different domains of cognitive functioning, including attention, memory, and reasoning.

“Also, estrogen-replacement therapy in postmenopausal women protects against cognitive decline across different domains of cognitive functioning, including attention, memory, and reasoning (Sherwin, 2002).”

• cites Sherwin, 2002Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The more robust relation between testosterone and reward-related activation in boys may be due to lower variability in testosterone level in girls than in boys.

“The relation between testosterone and reward-related activation was more robust in boys than in girls, possibly due to lower variability in testosterone level in girls than in boys.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The discrepancy with Forbes et al. may be explained by a difference in experimental paradigms: in Forbes et al.'s study a card-guessing game was used, and the neural response to reward was measured during the outcome phase time-locked to feedback presentation, whereas in the Jackpot task outcome and feedback were presented simultaneously and the neural response was time-locked to this combined ' '

“A possible explanation for this discrepancy is the difference in experimental paradigms; in Forbes et al.'s study a card-guessing game was used in which participants guessed whether the next playing card would be lower or higher than the stimulus card presented.”

• Also stated in: § 4.3. Gonadal hormone levels correspond with stronger reward-related activation · plain

  “In the Jackpot task outcome (i.e., appearance of fruit in the third slot) and feedback (i.e., appearance of blue or red bar indicating gain or loss respectively) were presented simultaneously, and the neural response to reward was time-locked to this 'combined' presentation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Previous studies have shown that cognitive performance (e.g., working memory) changes across the menstrual cycle.

“Indeed previous studies have shown that cognitive performance (e.g., working memory) changes across the menstrual cycle (Jacobs and D'Esposito, 2011)”

• cites Jacobs and D'Esposito, 2011Not checked yet

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