Fine-scale habitat requirements of the pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis): Implications for rainforest conservation in West Africa

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Angiosperm height is closely related to the overall density of the undergrowth, which the pygmy hippo prefers to be dense.

“Angiosperm height is closely related to the overall density of the undergrowth, which the pygmy hippo prefers to be dense according to Ouattara et al. (2019).”

• cites Ouattara et al. (2019) sourcePartly supported

  The Micro-habitat description (page not provided) says pygmy hippos were most often found in areas with closed undergrowth, and reports that individuals and footprints were mostly observed in shallows with closed undergrowth. It also describes a high vegetation stratum there, but does not establish that angiosperm height is closely related to undergrowth density. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Basal area is an important descriptor of forests and a powerful predictor in the study of animal-vegetation interactions.

“Tree size and stem density are important characteristics of overall forest structure. These related metrics can be jointly expressed as basal area, or the proportion of the sampled area taken up by woody stems, which has become known as both an important descriptor of forests in botanical works and as a powerful predictor in the study of animal-vegetation interactions (Dealy, 1985; Holdo, 2007;”

• cites Dealy, 1985 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract (page unavailable) says basal area was used to estimate crown closure in five Blue Mountains forest types, informing assessments of elk thermal cover. The Results and Discussion (page unavailable) report significant basal-area regressions, supporting its use as a predictor in this specific setting. The paper does not establish the broader claim that basal area is a powerful predictor across animal–vegetation interactions or an important descriptor in botanical works. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Holdo, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Miller et al., 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Most geospatial variables were selected because they have been proven important to the pygmy hippo in other modelling studies, except distance to camps which represents major sources of noise and human activity.

“Most of these were selected because they have been proven important to the pygmy hippo in other modelling studies (Bogui et al., 2016; Freeman et al., 2019; Hillers et al., 2017), except for 'distance to camps ' , which was included because it represents major sources of noise and human activity in our study area.”

• cites Bogui et al., 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Freeman et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hillers et al., 2017 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Exclosure experiments have shown that leaf litter in temperate forests may build up as a result of no large mammals passing through.

“Exclosure experiments, whereby large mammals were barred from entering, have shown leaf litter in temperate forests may build up as a result of no large mammals passing through (Ramirez et al., 2019).”

• cites Ramirez et al., 2019 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most research on the interaction between large mammals and leaf litter stems from temperate regions.

“Most research on the interaction between large mammals and leaf litter stems from temperate regions (i.e., Dhami et al., 2023; Neupane et al., 2022).”

• cites Dhami et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Neupane et al., 2022 sourceCould not verify

  The Microclimate Factors section discusses barking deer and leaf litter in Nepal and cites studies of other ungulates, but it does not assess where most research on large mammals and leaf litter has been conducted. Searches for temperate-region research and comparable geographic terms found no passage establishing the claimed predominance. (LLM, conf=0.74)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Variation in defecation likelihood has been observed before in other territorial mammal species in the context of human roads.

“Such a variation in defecation likelihood has been observed before in other territorial mammal species in the context of human roads (Krofel et al., 2017; Rafiq et al., 2020).”

• cites Krofel et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rafiq et al., 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The ‘Scent marking on roads’ results (p. 14) report that leopards scent marked more frequently on roads than on natural routes, and the paper classifies defecating as a scent-marking behaviour (p. 28). It does not report a road-related difference in defecation likelihood specifically; the reported differences concern scent marking overall and scrape marks. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Pteris burtonii is now largely restricted to valleys and lower slopes, being replaced upslope by the less moisture-dependent Triplophyllum protensum.

“We now observed this fern to be largely restricted to valleys and lower slopes, being replaced upslope by the less moisture-dependent Triplophyllum protensum .”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Of these droppings, 76 were encountered along transects (N = 39).

“Of these droppings, 76 were encountered along transects (N = 39).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A total of 42 species of pteridophyte were encountered; 23 occurred inside plots and 11 were included in further analyses.

“A total of 42 species of pteridophyte were encountered over the course of the project (Table S3). Of these, 19 were only ever found outside of environmental assessment plots. Of the remaining 23 species that did occur inside the plots, 11 were encountered in five plots or more and were included in further analyses.”

May combine two claims.

Total fern coverage and angiosperm undergrowth height effects trend towards significance.

“Both the total coverage of ferns and the height of the angiosperm undergrowth do warrant inclusion in future studies”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The p value of angiosperm height trended towards significance.

“The p value of 'angiosperm height ' also appears to trend towards significance (Table 3; Fig. 4).”

May combine two claims.

During the dry season, exposed sand and gravel beds were common, locations deep enough for a pygmy hippo to wallow occurred only sporadically, and root structures that might serve as burrows in the rainy season sat largely exposed.

“Exposed sand and gravel beds were a common sight, locations deep enough for a pygmy hippo to wallow only occurred sporadically, and root structures that in the rainy season might serve as burrows sat largely exposed.”

May combine two claims.

The Djouroutou research zone has a mean fecal density of 6.6 feces/ha, reaching a maximum of 39.0 feces/ha.

“Assuming a 5 m search strip width, the Djouroutou research zone has a mean fecal density of 6.6 feces/ha, reaching a maximum of 39.0 feces/ha in some areas.”

May combine two claims.

The model explained 19.0% of variance through fixed effects alone and 62.7% when accounting for transect-level variation.

“The model explained 19.0% of variance through fixed effects alone (marginal R 2 = 0.190), and 62.7% when accounting for transect-level variation (conditional R 2 = 0.627); Fig. 6 visualizes the model ' s predicted versus actual values.”

May combine two claims.

The number of feces encountered outside of transects far outweighs the on-transect count, with some of the densest clusters observed directly along the layons, including one close to a camp.

“The number of feces encountered outside of transects far outweighs the on-transect count, with some of the densest clusters actually observed directly along the layons, with one such cluster occurring quite close to a camp (Fig. S2).”

May combine two claims.

Fecal density as one moves away from a layon is somewhat bimodal, with one sharp peak directly along the paths and one diffuse peak further into the shrubbery, only the latter captured by the transect-based survey.

“It is our impression that the fecal density as one moves away from a layon is actually somewhat bimodal, with one sharp peak directly along the paths and one diffuse peak further into the shrubbery, only the latter of which was captured by our transect-based survey.”

May combine two claims.

Mixed-age feces were occasionally observed, suggesting that re-marking of old sprays does occur.

“Mixed-age feces were occasionally observed, suggesting that re-marking of old sprays does occur”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Thicker litter layers were generally associated with pockets of forest that were particularly difficult to traverse due to fallen trees and branches.

“we noticed thicker litter layers were generally associated with pockets of forest that were particularly difficult to traverse due to fallen trees and branches, potentially obstructing access to large-bodied animals.”

May combine two claims.

Large rivers in the study zone are largely bordered by floodplains with grasses, tall herbs and shrubs, as well as Plagiosiphon stands further inland with typically open undergrowth, instead of the 'regular' high forests and bas-fonds that border the creeks.

“the large rivers in the study zone are largely bordered by floodplains with grasses, tall herbs and shrubs, as well as Plagiosiphon stands further inland with a typically open undergrowth (Guillaumet, 1967), instead of the 'regular ' high forests and bas-fonds that border the creeks.”

• cites Guillaumet, 1967Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Habitat suitability for forest fauna may hinge on fine-scale habitat features that are easily overlooked in region-wide conservation assessments, but may nonetheless be highly sensitive to climatic and land-use change.

“Our results showcase that habitat suitability for forest fauna may hinge on fine-scale habitat features that are easily overlooked in region-wide conservation assessments, but may nonetheless be highly sensitive to climatic and land-use change in the wider region.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Only a few decades ago, the occurrence of Pteris burtonii on well-drained positions was considered highly characteristic for the relatively wet section of Taï NP.

“Only a few decades ago the occurrence of Pteris burtonii on well-drained positions was considered highly characteristic for our relatively wet section of Taï NP (De Rouw et al., 1990).”

• cites De Rouw et al., 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The underlying concept of phytosociology is that discrete groups of plant species can be designated that occupy a similar ecological position and tend to co-occur.

“The underlying concept of phytosociology is that discrete groups of plant species can be designated that occupy a similar ecological position and tend to co-occur.”

• cites De Rouw et al., 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Dengler, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Large rivers might be inaccessible to a large share of the pygmy hippo population.

“As such, large rivers might simply be inaccessible to a large share of the population.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Major rivers occur relatively scarcely in Taï NP.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The cumulative length of all forest creeks is much larger than that of major rivers.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Parametric bootstrapping was performed with n = 2000 runs to obtain robust estimates of uncertainty around fixed effects.

“To obtain robust estimates of uncertainty around the fixed effects, parametric bootstrapping was performed (n = 2000 runs).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Global Moran's I of the model residuals was 0.267, implying a moderate but acceptable degree of spatial autocorrelation.

“Global Moran ' s I of the model residuals returned a value of 0.267, implying a moderate but acceptable degree of spatial autocorrelation.”

May combine two claims.

One transect with 14 feces was excluded as an outlier, leaving 38 transects with 62 feces for analysis.

“This transect was deemed an outlier and was excluded from modelling, leaving 38 transects with 62 feces (including ten transects with zero feces) as the basis for further analysis (Fig. 3).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Pygmy hippos are thought to defend small, fixed territories.

“pygmy hippos are thought to defend small, fixed territories (Bülow, 1987).”

• cites Bülow, 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The spherical convex densiometer is easy to implement and sensitive to relatively minor changes in canopy closure and light penetration, though less precise than some modern electronic techniques.

“While the spherical densiometer isn ' t as precise as some of the more modern electronic techniques available, it is easy to implement and also sensitive to relatively minor changes in canopy closure and light penetration (Baudry et al., 2014).”

• cites Baudry et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Our understanding of pygmy hippo ecology remains limited, hindering ability to identify population cores, designate corridors and draw up management plans.

“The difficulties in providing a coherent explanation for pygmy hippo abundance across its range highlight that our understanding of their ecology remains limited. This hinders our ability to identify important population cores, designate viable population corridors and draw up effective management plans (Freeman et al., 2019).”

• cites Freeman et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Model residuals were checked for spatial autocorrelation using Moran's I for the eight nearest neighbours of each point.

“Lastly, the model residuals were checked for spatial autocorrelation by loading them into ArcGIS Pro and calculating Moran ' s I for the eight nearest neighbours of each point.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Normality of model residuals was evaluated with the package DHARMa.

“Normality of model residuals was evaluated with the package DHARMa (Hartig, 2024).”

• cites Hartig, 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Debate remains regarding the exact nature and strength of the relationship between the pygmy hippo and open bodies of water, particularly the relative importance of different types of aquatic habitats.

“Similarly, debate remains regarding the exact nature and strength of the relationship between the pygmy hippo and open bodies of water, particularly with respect to the relative importance of different types of aquatic habitats (Conway, 2013; Roth et al., 2004).”

• cites Conway, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Roth et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The systematic grid design of 1 × 1 km squares has historically been used for biomonitoring in Taï NP and elsewhere in the Upper Guinean rainforest.

“This design has historically been used for biomonitoring both in Taï NP (Bogui et al., 2016; Diarrassouba et al., 2019) and elsewhere in the Upper Guinean rainforest (Furnell et al., 2015).”

• cites Bogui et al., 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Diarrassouba et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Furnell et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The countless small, rain-fed forest streams in Taï NP have not been comprehensively mapped and tend to be excluded from niche modelling studies.

“The countless small, rain-fed forest streams in Taï NP haven ' t been comprehensively mapped and as such tend to be excluded from niche modelling studies (Bogui et al., 2016; Conway, 2013; Digbeu et al., 2024, Hillers et al., 2017).”

• cites Bogui et al., 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Conway, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Digbeu et al., 2024, Hillers et al., 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A similar mechanism to that in temperate forests may be operating in the study area, with difficult-to-traverse pockets potentially obstructing access to large-bodied animals.

“A similar mechanism may be operating here - indeed, we noticed thicker litter layers were generally associated with pockets of forest that were particularly difficult to traverse due to fallen trees and branches, potentially obstructing access to large-bodied animals.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Ferns are an important element of the pygmy hippo's diet.

“we expected the availability of ferns to be of importance to the pygmy hippo because they are an important element of their diet (Hentschel, 1990).”

• cites Hentschel, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The importance of small, rain-fed creeks identified here comes with conservation implications: as ongoing deforestation continues to exacerbate aridification, reduced creek availability may result in the loss of suitable habitat even where forest cover remains intact.

“The importance of small, rain-fed creeks identified here comes with conservation implications: as ongoing deforestation continues to exacerbate aridification, reduced creek availability may result in the loss of suitable habitat even where forest cover remains intact.”

May combine two claims.

Many fecal clusters along layons and camps were observed over weeks rather than at a single point in time because layons and camps formed the basis of daily navigation and were frequently used by observers.

“At least in part, this stems from the fact that these layons and camps formed the basis of daily navigation and were frequently used by observers, meaning that many of these clusters were actually observed over the course of weeks rather than at a single point in time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

High densities of pygmy hippo feces along human clearings have been reported before.

“High densities of pygmy hippo feces along human clearings have been reported before (Hentschel, 1990).”

• cites Hentschel, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.