Stroma-derived interleukin-34 controls the development and maintenance of Langerhans cells and the maintenance of microglia
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Colony stimulating factor-1 (Csf-1) receptor and its ligand Csf-1 control macrophage development, maintenance, and function. The development of both Langerhans cells (LCs) and microglia is highly dependent on Csf-1 receptor signaling but independent of Csf-1. Here we show that in both mice and humans, interleukin-34 (IL-34), an alternative ligand for Csf-1 receptor, is produced by keratinocytes in the epidermis and by neurons in the brain. Mice lacking IL-34 displayed a marked reduction of LCs and a decrease of microglia, whereas monocytes, dermal, and lymphoid tissue macrophages and DCs were unaffected. We identified IL-34 as a nonredundant cytokine for the development of LCs during embryogenesis as well as for their homeostasis in the adult skin. Whereas inflammation-induced repopulation of LCs appears to be dependent on Csf-1, once inflammation is resolved, LC survival is again IL-34-dependent. In contrast, microglia and their yolk sac precursors develop independently of IL-34 but rely on it for their maintenance in the adult brain.
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Langerhans cells are a unique cell population to the skin organ, where fate-mapping of macrophages demonstrates in situ proliferation to Langerhans cells in the skin during embryonic development.
“Langerhans cells are a unique cell population to the skin organ, where fate‐mapping of macrophages demonstrates in situ proliferation to Langerhans cells in the skin during embryonic development.[ 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 ]”
From Coordinated Development of Immune Cell Populations in Vascularized Skin Organoids from Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (2025) · cites this paper as [81]
The Results section, “IL-34 Controls the Embryonic Development of LCs but Not Microglia” (page unavailable), reports that precursors seed the skin before birth and that LC differentiation occurs locally during embryonic development. It does not report fate-mapping evidence of in situ proliferation during embryogenesis; the paper discusses local self-renewal in adult LCs instead. It also says adult LCs derive predominantly from fetal liver monocytes, with a smaller contribution from yolk sac macrophages. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSeveral groups have tried different culture conditions with cytokines such as CSF1, GM-CSF, TGFβ, and IL-34 to preserve homeostatic microglia signature and ramified morphology in vitro.
“Several groups have attempted different cell culture conditions to maintain homeostatic microglia signature and ramified morphology In vitro using a variety of cytokines, such as CSF1, GM-CSF, TGFβ, and IL-34 [73-76].”
From Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Microglia in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [75]
IL-34 and TGFβ-1 are among the factors required for microglia development and survival in vivo.
“These factors include IL-34 and TGFβ-1 (Butovsky et al., 2014; Greter et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2012; Yamasaki et al., 2014).”
From iPSC-derived human microglia-like cells to study neurological diseases (2017) · cites this paper as Greter et al., 2012
Murine studies identified key cytokines, cell receptors, and transcription factors required for microglia development and survival in vivo.
“Recently, murine studies identified key cytokines, cell receptors, and transcription factors required for microglia development and survival in vivo.”
From iPSC-derived human microglia-like cells to study neurological diseases (2017) · cites this paper as Greter et al., 2012
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- Authors
- Greter, M., Lelios, I., Pelczar, P., Hoeffel, G., Price, J., Leboeuf, M., Kündig, T. M., Frei, K., Ginhoux, F., Merad, M., & Becher, B.
- Affiliations
- University of Zurich (CH)
- Agency for Science, Technology and Research (SG)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- University Hospital Zurich (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Greter, Melanie
- ORCID
- Venue
- Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-12
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1050-1060
- ISSN
- 1074-7613 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4291117
- OpenAlex
- W2033985800
- Cited by
- 630
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 46 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 53 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 31
- FWCI
- 20.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Immunity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL086899, R01HL086899)
- National Cancer Institute (R01CA112100, CA112100)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U01AI095611, AI080884, R01AI080884)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Cytokine Signaling Pathways and Interactions
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and B-cell Immunology
- Keywords
- IL-34, Langerhans cells, microglia, CSF-1 receptor, keratinocytes, neurons, macrophage development, embryonic development, skin homeostasis, dendritic cells, monocytes
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Cell Differentiation, Epidermis, Homeostasis, Humans, Inflammation, Interleukins, Langerhans Cells, Psoriasis, Skin, Signal Transduction, Keratinocytes, Receptor, Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor, Stromal Cells, Microglia, Mice
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