The DOI matches its Crossref record; 156 of the 159 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Electrical stimulation of excitable tissue: design of efficacious and safe protocols
Abstract
The physical basis for electrical stimulation of excitable tissue, as used by electrophysiological researchers and clinicians in functional electrical stimulation, is presented with emphasis on the fundamental mechanisms of charge injection at the electrode/tissue interface. Faradaic and non-Faradaic charge transfer mechanisms are presented and contrasted. An electrical model of the electrode/tissue interface is given. The physical basis for the origin of electrode potentials is given. Various methods of controlling charge delivery during pulsing are presented. Electrochemical reversibility is discussed. Commonly used electrode materials and stimulation protocols are reviewed in terms of stimulation efficacy and safety. Principles of stimulation of excitable tissue are reviewed with emphasis on efficacy and safety. Mechanisms of damage to tissue and the electrode are reviewed.
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“For instance, all data used in this study to fit and validate the model used symmetric, biphasic pulse trains, while other pulse shapes might lead to different neural or behavioral responses (Merrill et al., 2005).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Merrill et al., 2005
In the citing paper
“A critical aspect of electrical stimulation is its higher level of safety risk compared to recording electrical activity, which can result in both electrode and tissue damage.”
From Interfaces with the peripheral nervous system for the control of a neuroprosthetic limb: a review (2020) · cites this paper as [16]
In the citing paper
“Similarly, Merrill et al. noted that a narrow pulse is desirable to decrease occurrence of electrochemical reactions, and therefore reduce electrode degradation [2].”
From Safety of long-term electrical peripheral nerve stimulation: review of the state of the art (2019) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“In terms of electrode corrosion, however, slightly unbalanced biphasic pulses might be advantageous [2, 77].”
From Safety of long-term electrical peripheral nerve stimulation: review of the state of the art (2019) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Charge injection at an electrode occurs through capacitive charge transfer, with no electron transfer across the electrodeelectrolyte interface, and Faradaic charge transfer, where electron transfer and reduction and oxidation (redox) reactions occur [101], [114].”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [101]
In the citing paper
“To minimise potentially toxic redox reaction products, biphasic stimulation reverses the charge injection in a second phase of a stimulation pulse aiming to reverse Faradaic reactions.”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [101]
In the citing paper
“Faradaic reactions where products are not available for the reverse reaction are not reversed, for example hydrolysis of water or 'water window' which places safety limits on electrode-electrolyte interface potentials [101].”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [101]
In the citing paper
“In a biphasic pulse neuron activation occurs at a lower threshold for cathodic (sink) currents [101], [119], compared to positive anodic (source) currents.”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [101]
In the citing paper
“Typical stimulation pulse widths range up to a few hundred μs , and current amplitudes vary from tens of μA to a few mA in peripheral nerve interfaces [9], [101].”
From Active Neural Interface Circuits and Systems for Selective Control of Peripheral Nerves: A Review (2024) · cites this paper as [101]
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Neural Stimulation and Recording Electrodes
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A technical guide to tDCS, and related non-invasive brain stimulation tools
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Self-citationSafety of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: Evidence Based Update 2016
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Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Merrill, D. R., Bikson, M., & Jefferys, J. G. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Utah (US)
- City College of New York (US)
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Merrill, Daniel R.
- Venue
- Journal of Neuroscience Methods
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2005-02
- Volume
- 141
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 171-198
- ISSN
- 0165-0270 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2153787766
- Cited by
- 2,078
- References
- 159
- Citations by year
- 2026: 100 · 2025: 136 · 2024: 116 · 2023: 126 · 2022: 132 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 119 · 2019: 132 · 2018: 137 · 2017: 115 · 2016: 109 · 2015: 100 · 2014: 98 · 2013: 91 · 2012: 80
- FWCI
- 2.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroscience Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5f32ns045454-03)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (5F32NS045454)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Electrochemistry › Electrochemical Analysis and Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
- Keywords
- functional electrical stimulation, electrode-tissue interface, charge injection, Faradaic charge transfer, electrode potential, electrochemical reversibility, stimulation protocols, stimulation safety, tissue damage mechanisms, electrode damage, electrode materials
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Biomedical Engineering, Electric Stimulation, Electrochemistry, Electrodes, Electrolytes, Electrophysiology, Electric Stimulation Therapy, Equipment Design, Humans
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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