Core Elements in the Process of Citing Publications: Conceptual Overview of the Literature

May combine two claims.

Our search of the literature revealed that many empirical studies focus on the cited document side, but only a few studies on the citing document side.

“Our search of the literature revealed that many empirical studies focus on the cited document side (e.g. the relationship between the number of co-authors of the cited document and its citations), but only a few studies on the citing document side (e.g. the assumed requirements of journals for citing specific documents).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Thus, the cited documents have not been selected because of their content, but in order to influence the reader as to the claims of the citing author.

“Thus, the cited documents have not been selected because of their content, but in order to influence the reader as to the claims of the citing author.”

• cites Gilbert, 1977 sourceNot checked yet

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According to Merton (1973), scientists are motivated to cite their peers by their belief in the justice of giving credit and the hope of increasing the likelihood of receiving credit through peer recognition.

“According to Merton (1973), scientists are motivated to cite their peers, by their belief in the justice of giving credit, and the hope of increasing the likelihood of receiving credit through peer recognition.”

• cites Merton, 1973Not checked yet

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Citations in scholarly publications are used in very different contexts of research evaluation, which focuses on measurements of research performance, scholarly quality, influence, or impact.

“Citations in scholarly publications are used in very different contexts of research evaluation, which focuses on measurements of research performance, scholarly quality, influence, or impact (Moed, 2017, Moed, 2005).”

• cites Moed, 2017Not checked yet

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• cites Moed, 2005Not checked yet

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Another group of studies (mostly from recent years) have investigated the context of citations.

“Another group of studies (mostly from recent years) have investigated the context of citations (see, e.g., Boyack et al., 2013, Zhao and Strotmann, 2014, Jha et al., 2016).”

• cites Boyack et al., 2013 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Zhao and Strotmann, 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Jha et al., 2016Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Citations are seen as complex processes which cannot be captured by cognitive influence alone.

“Citations are seen as complex processes which cannot be captured by cognitive influence alone .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In social-constructivist theory, citations are seen as rhetorical devices which are not related to the theory of Merton (1973).

“In social-constructivist theory, citations are seen as rhetorical devices which are not related to the theory of Merton (1973).”

• cites Merton, 1973Not checked yet

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The normative citation theory has been heavily criticized because it explains only a subset of citation decisions (or nothing at all).

“The theory has been heavily criticized because it explains only a subset of citation decisions (or nothing at all).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Nicolaisen (2004) claims that (human) citation behavior can be explained by theories of honesty and deception in animal communication.

“Nicolaisen (2004) claims that (human) citation behavior can be explained by theories of honesty and deception in animal communication.”

• cites Nicolaisen, 2004Not checked yet

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These elements are the basis for the assessment of many other features of the document, such as its topicality.

“These elements are the basis for the assessment of many other features of the document, such as its topicality (Wang and Soergel, 1998).”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

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Nicolaisen argues that references may be seen as threat signals similar to those in nature such as approaching a rival.

“He argues that references may be seen as threat signals similar to those in nature such as approaching a rival.”

• cites Nicolaisen, 2004Not checked yet

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The social-constructivist theory questions the validity of the normative assumption of the use of citations as reward.

“The social-constructivist theory questions the validity of the normative assumption of the use of citations as reward .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The use of citations in research evaluation contexts has its roots in citation theories proposed in the past.

“The use of citations in these and similar contexts has its roots in citation theories, which have been proposed in the past (see an overview in Cronin, 1984, Nicolaisen, 2007, Davis, 2009, Moed, 2005).”

• cites Cronin, 1984Not checked yet

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• cites Nicolaisen, 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Davis, 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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Gilbert (1977) regards citations as tools for persuasion.

“A typical and highly cited paper in this context is Gilbert (1977) who regards citations as tools for persuasion.”

• cites Gilbert, 1977 sourceNot checked yet

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Nicolaisen (2007) suggests that the handicap principle ensures that citing authors honestly credit their inspirations and sources to a tolerable degree-enough to save the scientific communication system from collapsing.

“Nicolaisen (2007, p. 629) suggests that ' the handicap principle ensures that citing authors honestly credit their inspirations and sources to a tolerable degree-enough to save the scientific communication system from collapsing ' .”

• cites Nicolaisen, 2007Not checked yet

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Similar overviews of studies dealing with factors influencing citations and important elements in the citation process have been published a decade ago.

“Similar overviews of studies dealing with factors influencing citations and important elements in the citation process have been published a decade ago (Bornmann and Daniel, 2008b, Nicolaisen, 2007).”

• cites Bornmann and Daniel, 2008bNot checked yet

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• cites Nicolaisen, 2007Not checked yet

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Authors would usually not make the risk of losing their reputation by using weak or dishonest references.

“Authors would usually not make the risk of losing their reputation by using weak or dishonest references.”

• cites Nicolaisen, 2004Not checked yet

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Many empirical studies focusing on the process of citing have been published to identify factors influencing the number of citations.

“Many empirical studies focusing on the process of citing have been published to identify factors influencing the number of citations.”

May combine two claims.

Merton (1973) provides a theoretical basis for scientometrics, in which citations indicate peer recognition through mechanisms such as awards.

“Merton (1973) provides a theoretical basis for scientometrics, in which citations indicate peer recognition through mechanisms such as awards.”

• cites Merton, 1973Not checked yet

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A higher level of deceit might be seen in young and immature fields with a less attack by skilled authors.

“A higher level of deceit might be seen in young and immature fields with a less attack by skilled authors (Nicolaisen, 2004).”

• cites Nicolaisen, 2004Not checked yet

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The level of honesty and deceit varies across scientific communities.

“He also notes that the level of honesty and deceit varies across scientific communities.”

• cites Nicolaisen, 2007Not checked yet

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In context-based citation studies, the words and sentences around citations are analyzed to get to know information about characteristics of the cited work, reasons to cite, and decision rules of the citing authors.

“In these studies, the words and sentences around citations are analyzed to get to know information about characteristics of the cited work, reasons to cite, and decision rules of the citing authors (Halevi and Moed, 2013).”

• cites Halevi and Moed, 2013Not checked yet

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The importance of the journal in a field has an influence on the citation impact of the papers published in the journal.

“For example, it has been shown in several studies that the importance of the journal in a field has an influence on the citation impact of the papers published in the journal (Tahamtan et al., 2016).”

• cites Tahamtan et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

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The potential cost of dishonest referencing, specifically when the citing references are made public, would make authors reconsider their deceiving behavior.

“The potential cost of dishonest referencing, specifically when the citing references are made public, would make authors reconsider their deceiving behavior.”

• cites Nicolaisen, 2004Not checked yet

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Nicolaisen's theory has not been formally tested.

“Nicolaisen's theory has not been formally tested.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Small et al. (2017) investigated the context of a set of citations to find words which characterize the cited research as discoveries in science.

“In a very recent study, for example, Small et al. (2017) investigated the context of a set of citations to find words which characterize the cited research as discoveries in science.”

• cites Small et al., 2017 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A skilled author detects the false reference and then knows where to criticize.

“A skilled author detects the false reference and then know where to criticize.”

• cites Nicolaisen, 2004Not checked yet

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The normative citation theory (proposed by Merton) holds that documents are cited if they have influenced the author of the citing document.

“The first and most prominent theory is the normative citation theory (proposed by Merton) where documents are cited if they have influenced the author of the citing document (Merton, 1973).”

• cites Merton, 1973Not checked yet

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According to Gilbert (1977), an author selects documents for citing which were published by reputable authors in the field.

“According to Gilbert (1977), an author selects documents for citing which were published by reputable authors in the field.”

• cites Gilbert, 1977 sourceNot checked yet

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Many other factors besides cognitive influence and peer recognition have been identified in the past.

“Many other factors besides cognitive influence and peer recognition have been identified in the past.”

May combine two claims.

Documents selected for citation have on average received about three times as many citations as unselected documents, slightly more for younger studies than older.

“Frandsen and Nicolaisen (2017) compared 67,578 pairs of studies on the same healthcare topic, with the same publication age (1-15 years) and showed that documents selected for citation, have on average received about three times as many citations as unselected documents - slightly more for younger studies than older.”

• cites Frandsen and Nicolaisen, 2017Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Citing authors might not consider availability when searching and selecting the document, but the document might not have the opportunity of being read if it is hard to obtain.

“Citing authors might not consider availability when searching and selecting the document, but the document might not have the opportunity of being read if it is hard to obtain (Wang and Soergel, 1998).”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

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Review papers usually have long lists of references and are heavily cited, which inflates the journal impact factor (JIF).

“Specifically, review papers usually have long lists of references and are heavily cited which inflates, e.g. the journal impact factor (JIF) - a well-known journal metric (Seglen, 1997).”

• cites Seglen, 1997 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

There is no consensus on the definition of quality and how it should be measured.

“There is no consensus on the definition of quality and how it should be measured (Hug et al., 2014).”

• cites Hug et al., 2014Not checked yet

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The Reference Return Ratio (3R) avoids some of the problems facing traditional impact measures by taking the number and age of references into account.

“'By taking the number and age of references into account, the 3R avoids some of the problems facing the traditional impact measures' (Nicolaisen and Frandsen, 2008 p. 128-129).”

• cites Nicolaisen and Frandsen, 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A positive correlation exists between citation counts and the number of cited references; documents with more cited references achieve more citations.

“For instance, it has been revealed that a positive correlation exists between citation counts and the number of cited references (Falagas et al., 2013) that is documents with more cited references would achieve more citations (Vieira and Gomes, 2010).”

• cites Falagas et al., 2013 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Vieira and Gomes, 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Hot topics have a higher topicality for citing authors, and in turn attract more attention and citations from the scientific community.

“In general, hot topics have a higher topicality for citing authors, and in turn attract more attention and citations from the scientific community.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Researchers have differing attitudes toward quality, so that some consider accuracy and importance of research as higher quality, while for others it is creativity and novelty.

“Researchers have differing attitudes toward quality, so that some consider accuracy and importance of research as higher quality, while for others it is creativity and novelty (Tahamtan et al., 2016).”

• cites Tahamtan et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

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Researchers usually prefer to write about hot topics in their areas and thus cite the corresponding literature.

“Researchers usually prefer to write about hot topics in their areas and thus cite the corresponding literature (Fu and Aliferis, 2010, Gallivan, 2012).”

• cites Fu and Aliferis, 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Gallivan, 2012Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Quality is a more or less subjective construct with no generalizable definition, and is assessed differently in disciplines.

“It is a more or less subjective construct with no generalizable definition, and is assessed differently in disciplines.”

May combine two claims.

If a new publication captures the attention previously paid to an older publication, the cycle may be broken and the new document might be more attractive for citing.

“However, if a new publication captures the attention previously paid to an older publication, the cycle may be broken and the new document might be more attractive for citing (Small, 2004).”

• cites Small, 2004 sourceNot checked yet

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One possible reason for higher recognition of collaborative documents is that more authors present the results in scientific networks (such as conferences and workshops).

“One possible reason is that more authors present the results in scientific networks (such as conferences and workshops).”

May combine two claims.

Journals with international audiences, journals in fast-developing areas such as genetics, biochemistry, and molecular biology, as well as English language and interdisciplinary journals are more likely to be read and cited.

“Journals with international audiences (Annalingam et al., 2014), journals in fast-developing areas, such as genetics, biochemistry, and molecular biology (Huang et al., 2012), as well as English language (Bornmann et al., 2012) and interdisciplinary journals (Annalingam et al., 2014) are more likely to be read and cited.”

• cites Annalingam et al., 2014 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Huang et al., 2012 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Bornmann et al., 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Some multidisciplinary journals (e.g. Nature, Science, or PNAS) attract cross-field attention; the same is true for journals from certain publishers.

“Furthermore, some multidisciplinary journals (e.g. Nature , Science , or Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ) attract cross-field attention; the same is true for journals from certain publishers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One possible explanation for the relationship between reference counts and citation counts is that the more people you cite in your paper, the more people are likely to cite your paper in the future.

“One possible explanation for such relationship is that 'the more people you cite in your paper, the more people are likely to cite your paper (the paper they were cited in) in the future' (Webster et al., 2009, p. 349).”

• cites Webster et al., 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Team diversity and interdisciplinary cooperation of co-authors, and the availability of former co-authors also increase a document's readership (and citedness).

“Team diversity and interdisciplinary cooperation of co-authors (Antoniou et al., 2015), and the availability of former co-authors also increase a document's readership (and citedness) (Collet et al., 2014).”

• cites Antoniou et al., 2015 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Collet et al., 2014 sourceNot checked yet

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Documents with shorter titles might attract more attention than documents with longer titles.

“For instance, documents with shorter titles might attract more attention than documents with longer titles (Ayres and Vars, 2000).”

• cites Ayres and Vars, 2000Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Well-known, highly-cited authors, authors well recognized by readers, and authors with higher academic rank attract more attention.

“Well-known, and highly-cited authors (Bornmann and Daniel, 2007), authors well recognized by readers (Bjarnason and Sigfusdottir, 2002), and authors with higher academic rank (Pagel and Hudetz, 2011) attract more attention.”

• cites Bornmann and Daniel, 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Bjarnason and Sigfusdottir, 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Pagel and Hudetz, 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Reviews provide readers with comprehensive information and methodological studies introduce new scientific tools.

“The former provides readers with comprehensive information and the latter introduces new scientific tools (Padial et al., 2010).”

• cites Padial et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Several organizational features are reviewed by Tahamtan et al. (2016), including number of faculty members, number of published documents, number of productive and prestigious scholars in the department, rank of school or university, language of the institution, interdisciplinarity of the institutions, and the number of scholars in the organization.

“Several organizational features are reviewed by Tahamtan et al. (2016), including number of faculty members, number of published documents, number of productive and prestigious scholars in the department, rank of school or university, language of the institution, interdisciplinarity of the institutions, and the number of scholars in the organization.”

• cites Tahamtan et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

When a document is cited, researchers observe that, and this increases their interest in the document and the likelihood of citing (accumulative advantage).

“When a document is cited, researchers observe that, and this increases their interest in the document and the likelihood of citing (accumulative advantage).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In evolutionary psychology, reference counts explained 19% of the variance in citation counts.

“Webster et al. (2009, p. 356) indicate that in evolutionary psychology, 'reference counts explained 19% of the variance in citation counts'.”

• cites Webster et al., 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the discussion section of citing documents, other works are contrasted with each other, or the results in the citing documents are presented as alternatives to the results in the cited documents.

“In the discussion section of citing documents, other works are contrasted with each other, or the results in the citing documents are presented as alternatives to the results in the cited documents (Bornmann and Daniel, 2008b).”

• cites Bornmann and Daniel, 2008bNot checked yet

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The multiple-criteria rule describes a situation where the citing author uses more than one criterion, such as the language of the document, its publisher, and the attractiveness of its topic to accept or reject a document.

“The multiple-criteria rule describes a situation where the citing author uses more than one criterion, such as the language of the document, its publisher, and the attractiveness of its topic to accept or reject a document (Wang and Soergel, 1998, Wang and White, 1999).”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

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• cites Wang and White, 1999Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Documents' values are relevant in the selection, reading, and citation stages.

“Documents' values are relevant in the selection, reading, and citation stages.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The author cites a document to contrast the results in the citing and cited documents.

“The author cites a document to contrast the results in the citing and cited documents.”

• cites Bornmann and Daniel, 2008bNot checked yet

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These conceptual citations are usually the original documents in which an idea, concept, or theory was introduced.

“These are usually the original documents in which an idea, concept, or theory was introduced (Moravcsik and Murugesan, 1975).”

• cites Moravcsik and Murugesan, 1975Not checked yet

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When the decision maker finds arguments that are strong enough for making a choice, it is proceeded by the feeling of confidence that the decision taken was the correct one to make.

“Therefore, when the decision maker (e.g. the citing author) finds arguments that are strong enough for making a choice, it is proceeded by the feeling of confidence that the decision taken was the correct one to make (Montgomery, 1983, Vermeir et al., 2002).”

• cites Montgomery, 1983 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Vermeir et al., 2002 sourceNot checked yet

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Authors cite certain documents to defend their claims against attack.

“Authors cite certain documents to defend their claims against attack.”

• cites SpiegelRosing, 1977Not checked yet

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It is possible that the citing author disclaims the work or ideas of others or disputes priority claims of others (negative homage).

“It is also possible that the citing author disclaims the work or ideas of others or disputes priority claims of others (negative homage) (Garfield, 1962).”

• cites Garfield, 1962Not checked yet

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The citing author refers to assumed knowledge (general or specific background), or acknowledges the work of pioneers.

“The citing author refers to assumed knowledge (that is a general or specific background), or the citing author acknowledges the work of pioneers (Bornmann and Daniel, 2008b).”

• cites Bornmann and Daniel, 2008bNot checked yet

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Documents are cited because the citing authors point to used tools, practical techniques, materials, equipment, analysis methods, procedures, or study design.

“Documents are cited because the citing authors point to used tools, practical techniques, materials, equipment, analysis methods, procedures, or study design (Moravcsik and Murugesan, 1975).”

• cites Moravcsik and Murugesan, 1975Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

When only a few documents on a topic exist, the citing author is likely to apply less strict selection criteria, lower his or her threshold, and reads and cites less relevant documents. This is called the scarcity rule.

“When only a few documents on a topic exist, the citing author is likely to apply less strict selection criteria, lower his or her threshold, and reads and cites less relevant documents. This is called the scarcity rule (Wang and Soergel, 1998, Wang and White, 1999).”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

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• cites Wang and White, 1999Not checked yet

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Authors cite a document in order to correct their own work or the work of others.

“Authors cite a document in order to correct their own work or the work of others (Garfield, 1962).”

• cites Garfield, 1962Not checked yet

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The dominance rule is more fundamental than the other decision rules.

“Although a variety of decision rules have been proposed for how people choose among plenty of alternatives, it is asserted that the dominance rule is more fundamental than the others (Montgomery, 1983).”

• cites Montgomery, 1983 sourceNot checked yet

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The elimination rule applies when the citing author considers only one criterion to evaluate the document values, which is sufficient to reject a document.

“The elimination rule applies when the citing author considers only one criterion to evaluate the document values, which is sufficient to reject a document.”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Citing authors have a variety of reasons to cite documents.

“Citing authors have a variety of reasons to cite documents.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Similar conclusions about normative citing have been published by Thornley et al. (2015) from an interview-based citation behaviour study.

“Similar conclusions have been published by Thornley et al. (2015) from an interview-based citation behaviour study.”

• cites Thornley et al. (2015)Not checked yet

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Some of the most important features according to which the epistemic value is understood are topicality, novelty, and discipline.

“Some of the most important features according to which the epistemic value is understood are topicality, novelty, and discipline.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Decision making typically takes place in a situation where enough information has been gathered that allows each potential choice to be evaluated and compared to the alternatives, and the decision-maker most often selects only one of them.

“Decision making typically takes place in a situation where enough information have been gathered that allows each potential choice to be evaluated and compared to the alternatives, and the decision-maker most often selects only one of them (Case and Given, 2016).”

• cites Case and Given, 2016Not checked yet

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Positive or negative attitudes toward a document's value in the citing author are related to the document, author, and journal features mentioned above.

“Positive or negative attitudes toward a document's value in the citing author are related to the document, author, and journal features mentioned above.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Authority mostly affects social value.

“Authority mostly affects social value (Wang and Soergel, 1998).”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

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The functional value can be influenced by features such as topicality, orientation/level, discipline, expected quality, and recency.

“The functional value can be influenced by features such as topicality, orientation/level, discipline, expected quality, and recency (Wang and Soergel, 1998).”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

When enough documents on a topic are selected, the citing author does not read any more documents, and the selection and citation process on that topic is terminated. This is called the satisfice rule.

“When - from the point of view of the citing author - enough documents on a topic are selected, the citing author does not read any more documents, and the selection and citation process on that topic is terminated. This is called the satisfice rule (Wang and Soergel, 1998, Wang and White, 1999).”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

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• cites Wang and White, 1999Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Garfield (1962) notes a number of different reasons to cite, including paying homage to pioneers, giving credit for related work, identifying methodology, providing background reading, correcting one's own work, correcting the work of others, criticizing previous work, substantiating claims, alerting researchers to forthcoming work, providing leads to poorly disseminated work, authenticating data,

“In a first attempt, Garfield (1962, p. 85) notes a number of different reasons to cite:”

• cites Garfield, 1962Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Authors cite to support their claims and to convince readers of their knowledge claims.

“authors cite to support their claims and to convince readers of their knowledge claims.”

• cites Gilbert (1977) sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Documents are cited because they present the concepts, definitions, interpretations, or theories which are used in the citing document.

“Documents are cited because they present the concepts, definitions, interpretations, or theories which are used in the citing document.”

• cites Moravcsik and Murugesan, 1975Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The social context suggests that a document is valuable and should be cited.

“Then, the social context suggests that a document is valuable and should be cited (Wang and Soergel, 1998).”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A citing author assesses a document's value as functional if it is topically relevant and therefore accepts it.

“A citing author assesses a document's value as functional if it is topically relevant and therefore accepts it.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The classical/founder type of citation reason is deeply rooted in the normative theory of citing.

“This type of reasons for citation is deeply rooted in the normative theory of citing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In the selection process, each document goes through two main processes: citing authors have different reasons to cite a document, and citing authors make a choice by applying decision rules.

“In the selection process, each document goes through two main processes: (1) Citing authors have different reasons to cite a document, e.g. the authors criticize the cited work. (2) Citing authors make a choice by applying decision rules .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Selection decisions of documents for citing are done by single citing authors, however other entities, such as author groups, institutions, or journals play significant roles in this process.

“Selection decisions of documents for citing are done by single citing authors, however other entities, such as author groups, institutions, or journals play significant roles in this process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

People vary in the level of confidence in their decisions made.

“However, people vary in the level of confidence in their decisions made (Vermeir et al., 2002).”

• cites Vermeir et al., 2002 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the decision making process, authors try to gather as much information and as many features as they can to reduce their feeling of uncertainty and to make their choice.

“In the decision making process, authors try to gather as much information and as many features as they can to reduce their feeling of uncertainty and to make their choice (Case and Given, 2016).”

• cites Case and Given, 2016Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

If a document is the first substantial work on a topic, methodology, or technique, or its author is the founder of a theory, method, or technique, the probability of citation increases.

“If a document is the first substantial work on a topic, methodology, or technique or the document's author is the founder of a theory, method, or technique, the probability of citation increases.”

• Also stated in: § 3.2.1 Reasons to cite · p. 16 · plain

  “Citing authors tend to cite the first substantial work (Wang and White, 1999).”

• cites Wang and White, 1999Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In a recent study, Catalini et al. (2015) analyzed citations from papers in the Journal of Immunology and identified 2.4% of the total number of citations as negative.

“In a recent study, Catalini et al. (2015) analyzed citations from papers in the Journal of Immunology and identified 2.4% of the total number of citations as negative.”

• cites Catalini et al., 2015 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The citing author points to forthcoming works or refers the reader to additional reading.

“The citing author points to forthcoming works or refers the reader to additional reading (Garfield, 1962).”

• cites Garfield, 1962Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A citation can be set for historical reasons by tracking developments of the sciences.

“For instance, a citation can be set for historical reasons by tracking developments of the sciences.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Five types of document values have been identified, including epistemic, functional, conditional, social, and emotional values.

“Five types of document values have been identified, including epistemic, functional, conditional, social, and emotional values.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

People need a set of criteria for knowing when they are ready for decisions.

“People also need a set of criteria for knowing when they are ready for decisions (Montgomery, 1983).”

• cites Montgomery, 1983 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Italian scholars cite normatively, paying their intellectual debts and acknowledging colleagues' works.

“The study by Riviera (2015, p. 1186) shows that 'Italian scholars cite normatively, paying their intellectual debts and acknowledging colleagues' works'.”

• cites Riviera (2015, p. 1186) sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Documents are cited for very different reasons, such as showing the theoretical connection between citing and cited documents, or for reasons which are not related to research.

“This first attempt already demonstrates that documents are cited for very different reasons, such as showing the theoretical connection between citing and cited documents, or documents are cited for reasons which are not related to research.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Several document features, including document type and discipline of appearance, influence how documents are cited in the citing document.

“Several document features, including document type and discipline of appearance, influence how documents are cited in the citing document.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Citations in the introduction are more likely to present background literature than those in other sections.

“Cano (1989) points out that citations in the introduction are more likely to present background literature than those in other sections.”

• cites Cano, 1989 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An important reason for the upward trend in references might be that citations were increasingly considered as central elements of academic writing.

“An important reason for this trend might be that citations were increasingly considered as central elements of academic writing (Bazerman, 1988, Hyland, 2004).”

• cites Bazerman, 1988Not checked yet

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• cites Hyland, 2004Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Users with high topic knowledge issue longer and more complex queries during their search than novice users.

“Users with high topic knowledge issue longer and more complex queries during their search than novice users (Hembrooke et al., 2005).”

• cites Hembrooke et al., 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is a rough consensus in the literature that references located outside the introduction tend to be the most valuable.

“Boyack et al. (2018) note that there is a rough consensus in the literature that references located outside the introduction tend to be the most valuable.”

• cites Boyack et al., 2018 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Citation cartels explain relationships between citing and cited authors which are intended to increase the citedness of the citing authors' own papers.

“Thus, citation cartels explain relationships between citing and cited authors which are intended to increase the citedness of the citing authors' own papers (Fister Jr et al., 2016).”

• cites Fister Jr et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An author's personal knowledge can take a variety of types, including topic knowledge, knowledge of the authors, knowledge of the journal, and knowledge of the organization.

“An author's personal knowledge can take a variety of types (Wang and Soergel, 1998), including topic knowledge (who are the relevant authors, when was the topic firstly discussed, and how is it related to the topic at hand), knowledge of the authors (who authored the document - knowledge which is often used to judge topical relevance), knowledge of the journal (by which the document’”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The target journal's instructions influence the authors' decision to cite certain documents.

“For example, the desire of co-authors to cite their own documents influences their selection of documents, or the target journal's instructions influence the authors' decision to cite certain documents.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

32% of the documents are cited in the introduction, 24% in the methods, 13% in the results, and 31% in the discussion sections.

“Their study shows that 32% of the documents are cited in the introduction, 24% in the methods, 13% in the results, and 31% in the discussion sections.”

• cites Bornmann and Daniel, 2008aNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Perfunctory citations encompass the largest category of citations in the first 15% section (33%).

“According to this study, perfunctory citations encompass the largest category of citations in this section (33%).”

• cites Cano, 1989 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Besides the features of the cited document, the features of the citing document also influence citation decisions.

“Besides the features of the cited document , the features of the citing document also influence citation decisions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Organic citations comprise the largest category in the middle section (32%) and at the end (41%) of the cited document.

“Organic citations comprise the largest category in the middle section (32%) and at the end (41%) of the cited document (Cano, 1989) (see section 3.2).”

• cites Cano, 1989 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Mathematics and computer science as well as social science and humanities have more evenly distributed reference distributions.

“In contrast, mathematics and computer science as well as social science and humanities have more evenly distributed reference distributions.”

• cites Boyack et al., 2017Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The reference distributions vary in different fields of science (e.g. mathematics and computer science as well as social science and humanities).

“Boyack et al. (2018) indicate that the reference distributions vary in different fields of science (e.g. mathematics and computer science as well as social science and humanities).”

• cites Boyack et al., 2018 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The desire of co-authors to cite their own documents influences their selection of documents.

“For example, the desire of co-authors to cite their own documents influences their selection of documents, or the target journal's instructions influence the authors' decision to cite certain documents.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For a repeatedly cited document, its first-time citation is usually perfunctory, unlike the later citations.

“Hu et al. (2015) show that for a repeatedly cited document, its first-time citation is usually perfunctory, unlike the later citations (see section 3.2.1).”

• cites Hu et al., 2015Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The location predicts the importance of the cited reference.

“The results of Safer and Tang (2009) in psychology reveal that the location predicts the importance of the cited reference.”

• cites Safer and Tang, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Reviews usually cite more documents than publications of another document type.

“Reviews usually cite more documents than publications of another document type.”

May combine two claims.

Multi-authorship increases self-citation rates (and also the probability of being cited by others).

“Glänzel and Thijs (2004) show that multi-authorship increases self-citation rates (and also the probability of being cited by others).”

• cites Glänzel and Thijs, 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The occurrences of citations are concentrated in the introduction.

“For instance, one study shows that the occurrences of citations are concentrated in the introduction (Hu et al., 2013).”

• cites Hu et al., 2013Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Authors are motivated to cite for scientific or non-scientific reasons.

“Authors are motivated to cite for scientific or non-scientific reasons (see section 3.2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Citation counts of references peak at around the 30th centile, suggesting that methods papers are more highly cited than other types of papers.

“They found similar reference distributions for biomedical and health sciences, life and earth sciences, as well as physical sciences and engineering: 'citation counts of references peak at around the 30th centile, suggesting that methods papers are more highly cited than other types of papers' (p. 20).”

• cites Boyack et al., 2017Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Documents with high citation counts are more frequently cited in the introduction (34% of the citing document) than documents with low citation counts (30% of the citing documents).

“For instance, documents with high citation counts are more frequently cited in the introduction (34% of the citing document) than documents with low citation counts (30% of the citing documents).”

• cites Bornmann and Daniel, 2008aNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Features of the author (of the citing document) are central elements in the citation process.

“Features of the author (of the citing document) are central elements in the citation process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Citing authors prefer to make a collective decision on a set of documents that are connected to each other by a specific relationship, such as a document and its critiques or its citations. This is called the chain rule.

“The last decision rule is the chain rule : citing authors prefer to make a collective decision on a set of documents that are connected to each other by a specific relationship, such as a document and its critiques or its citations.”

• cites Wang and Soergel, 1998Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Agreement is expressed mostly at the end of research papers, especially in the 'Discussion' section and towards the end of the 'Results' section. Disagreement is less common in scientific discourse.

“Their results show that 'agreement is expressed mostly at the end of a research papers, especially in the 'Discussion' section and towards the end of the 'Results' section. Disagreement is less common in scientific discourse' (p. 1426).”

• cites Bertin et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Not only the reasons for citing a document, but also its relevance for the citing author can be deduced from its location in the citing document.

“Voos and Dagaev (1976) show that not only the reasons for citing a document, but also its relevance for the citing author can be deduced from its location in the citing document.”

• cites Voos and Dagaev, 1976Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In modern academic writing, citations maintain specific relevance to the citing document (author), and cited documents are discussed in more detail in all sections of the citing document.

“In modern academic writing, citations maintain specific relevance to the citing document (author), and cited documents are discussed in more detail in all sections of the citing document (Swales, 1990, Hyland, 2004).”

• cites Swales, 1990Not checked yet

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• cites Hyland, 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The highest concentration of citations is in the first 15% of the citing document.

“Another study indicates that the highest concentration of citations is in the first 15% of the citing document.”

• cites Cano, 1989 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Documents with low or high citation counts are cited differently in the different sections of citing documents.

“They indicate that documents with low or high citation counts are cited differently in the different sections of citing documents.”

• cites Bornmann and Daniel, 2008aNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The numbers of citations of specific documents and their location in the citing document depend also on the citing document features (e.g. the type of citing document), author features (e.g. the number of authors of the citing document), and journal features (e.g. guidelines of the journal).

“The numbers of citations of specific documents and their location in the citing document depend also on the citing document features (e.g. the type of citing document), author features (e.g. the number of authors of the citing document), and journal features (e.g. guidelines of the journal).”

May combine two claims.

Citation cartels, number of authors, and self-citations are author-related factors influencing citations.

“Besides academic background and individual attributes, we would like to mention three further author-related factors influencing citations: citation cartels, number of authors, and self-citations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Over the period from 1910 to 1983, the average number of cited references in documents was about ten.

“Over the period from 1910 to 1983, the average number of cited references in documents was about ten.”

• cites Swales, 1990Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The lowest percentage of self-citations in publications by Norwegian authors is in clinical medicine (17%) and the highest percentage is in chemistry and astrophysics (31%).

“Aksnes (2003) shows that the lowest percentage of self-citations in publications by Norwegian authors is in clinical medicine (17%) and the highest percentage is in chemistry and astrophysics (31%).”

• cites Aksnes, 2003 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some journals determine the number of references that should be used for different types of papers in their guidelines or instructions for authors.

“Some journals determine the number of references that should be used for different types of papers in their guidelines or instructions for authors.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Besides simply counting the number of citations obtained, citations can be disaggregated based on their different values, including epistemic, functional, conditional, social, and emotional values.

“Besides simply counting the number of citations obtained, citations can be disaggregated based on their different values, including epistemic, functional, conditional, social, and emotional values ( see section 3.1.4 ).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The conceptual overview shows that citations in citing documents can be explained differently and depends on many factors.

“The conceptual overview shows that citations in citing documents can be explained differently and depends on many factors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Normative and constructivist theories should be combined in one theory.

“Small (2004) and other researchers have pointed out that normative and constructivist theories should be combined in one theory (Liu, 1997).”

• cites Small, 2004 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Liu, 1997Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Each single citation process probably has its own characteristics across the core elements in the model and their assigned factors, rules, and reasons.

“Each single citation process probably has its own characteristics across the core elements in the model and their assigned factors, rules, and reasons (Bornmann and Marx, 2012).”

• cites Bornmann and Marx, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Citation cartels also refer to journal editors who use inter-journal citations to increase the JIF of their journals.

“Citation cartels (see section 3.3.3) also refer to journal editors who use inter-journal citations to increase the JIF of their journals (Garfield, 2006).”

• cites Garfield, 2006 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

These reasons can be assigned to different degrees of relevance for scientific progress: for instance, methodological or operational reasons can be assigned a higher relevance than perfunctory reasons.

“These reasons can be assigned to different degrees of relevance for scientific progress: for instance, methodological or operational reasons can be assigned a higher relevance than perfunctory reasons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Citations vary widely from one situation to another and authors have different reasons to cite.

“Latour (1987) draws attention to the fact that citations vary widely from one situation to another and that authors have different reasons to cite.”

• cites Latour, 1987Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

One reason for this result of the overview might be that many citation studies are driven by the available data and full text is only recently becoming more easily available.

“One reason for this result of the overview might be that many citation studies are driven by the available data and full text is only recently becoming more easily available.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The conceptual overview of the literature in this study can be seen as an alternative to the proposed theories of citation, because it points to the most important elements - the core elements - in the citation process.

“The conceptual overview of the literature in this study can be seen as an alternative to the proposed theories of citation, because it points to the most important elements - the core elements - in the citation process.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The core elements identified in the literature are the most important elements in the citation process.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Authors use citations to support their knowledge claims and indicate with this that their work is scientific.

“A uthors use citations to support their knowledge claims and indicate with this that their work is scientific.”

• cites Latour, 1987Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Latour's explanation does not legitimate major uses of citation, its use as a performance measure, or as an indication of the development of specialties, as in co-citation analysis.

“Luukkonen (1997) notes that this explanation does not legitimate major uses of citation, its use as a performance measure, or as an indication of the development of specialties, as in co-citation analysis.”

• cites Luukkonen, 1997 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

A comprehensive theory of citation could not be formulated in the 20th century and even later on.

“According to Leydesdorff (1998), however, a comprehensive theory of citation could not be formulated in the 20 th century and even later on.”

• cites Leydesdorff, 1998 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Based on the 'manuscript formatting guide' of Nature, articles (original reports) should have no more than 50 references. In Science, research articles should have about 40 references.

“For instance, based on the 'manuscript formatting guide' of Nature , articles (original reports) should have no more than 50 references. In Science , research articles should have about 40 references.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Using their perceived values in the citing document, new kinds of citation analyses seem possible.

“Thus, citations can simply be counted; however, using their perceived values in the citing document, new kinds of citation analyses seem possible (Boyack et al., 2017).”

• cites Boyack et al., 2017Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Citation reasons and values can be reliably inferred from citing documents.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Selection decisions can be assessed by empirically analyzing the online activity surrounding documents, including the number of times a document is viewed, downloaded, or saved from publishers' web sites and discussed or recommended on social media.

“Selection decisions can be assessed by empirically analyzing the online activity surrounding documents, including the number of times a document is viewed, downloaded, or saved from publishers' web sites and discussed or recommended on social media (Lin and Fenner, 2013).”

• cites Lin and Fenner, 2013Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The availability of citation context information in new sources of citation data, such as Microsoft Academic, opens new opportunities to study document values and possible reasons to cite.

“The availability of citation context information in new sources of citation data, such as Microsoft Academic, opens new opportunities to study document values and possible reasons to cite (Haunschild et al., 2017, Hug et al., 2017, Hug and Brändle, in press, Zhang et al., 2013).”

• cites Haunschild et al., 2017Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Hug et al., 2017Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Zhang et al., 2013 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The WoS and Scopus platforms provide researchers with usage counts for publications, enabling researchers to analyze the usage data and to explore usage patterns.

“The WoS and Scopus platforms also provide researchers with usage counts for publications, enabling researchers to analyze the usage data and to explore usage patterns (Wang et al., 2016, Thelwall et al., 2013).”

• cites Wang et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Thelwall et al., 2013 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Further citation theories have not reached the importance of the normative and constructivist theories.

“However, these further citation theories have not reached the importance of the normative and constructivist theories.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

One advantage of Latour's theory over the normative theory is that the former paints a coherent picture of the actual use of citations, and that citations perform different functions.

“Luukkonen (1997) further explains that one advantage of Latour's theory over the normative theory is that the former paints a coherent picture of the actual use of citations, and that citations perform different functions.”

• cites Luukkonen, 1997 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

The general role of citations is uniformly that of supporting knowledge claims.

“According to this theory, the general role of citations is uniformly that of supporting knowledge claims.”

• cites Latour, 1987Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Many empirical studies in the area of citation are rooted in the normative and constructivist theories.

“The overview starts with an explanation of three important citation theories, because many empirical studies in this area are rooted in these theories (especially the normative and constructivist theories).”

May combine two claims.

Although a higher number of citing authors can lead to more citations in the citing document, the number of self-citations can only explain a (small) part of the increased overall citation rates.

“Although a higher number of citing authors can lead to more citations in the citing document, the number of self-citations can only explain a (small) part of the increased overall citation rates.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Citations can also be disaggregated by the reasons of the citing authors (e.g. to support own knowledge claims or to criticize other research).

“Citations can also be disaggregated by the reasons of the citing authors (e.g. to support own knowledge claims or to criticize other research).”

May combine two claims.

Citation cartels additionally explain relationships between editor and citing author and thus the corresponding inclusion of cited references in citing documents.

“Thus, citation cartels additionally explain relationships between editor and citing author (Fister Jr et al., 2016) and thus the corresponding inclusion of cited references in citing documents.”

• cites Fister Jr et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

These core elements have been identified in the manifold literature on the process and condensed in a schematic representation.

“These core elements have been identified in the manifold literature on the process and condensed in a schematic representation.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The literature reviewed is comprehensive enough to identify the core elements of the citation process.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).