The drive to eat in homo sapiens: Energy expenditure drives energy intake
Abstract
The drive to eat is a component of appetite control, independent of the omnivorous habit of humans, and separate from food choice, satiety and food reward. The drive forms part of the tonic component of appetite and arises from biological needs; it is distinct from episodic aspects of appetite which are heavily influenced by culture and the environment (and which reflect the omnivorous habit). It is proposed that the tonic drive to eat reflects a need state generated by metabolic energy expenditure (EE) required to maintain the functioning and integrity of vital organs. Specifically, the tonic drive is quantitatively associated with fat-free mass (FFM) and resting metabolic rate (RMR). A rational proposition is that high metabolic rate organs (such as heart, liver, kidneys, brain) together with skeletal muscle generate a metabolic need which drives energy intake (EI). The basic phenomenon of a relationship between FFM, RMR and EI, first published in 2011, has been substantially replicated and there are at least 14 concordant published studies carried out in 9 different countries (and 4 continents) with various ethnic groups of lean and obese humans. These studies demonstrate that FFM and RMR represent major determinants of the drive to eat, and this is rational from an evolutionary perspective. The EE of bodily movements through skeletal muscle activity (namely physical activity and exercise) represents another driver which is clearly but more weakly associated with an increase in EI. This account of appetite control, developed within an energy balance framework, is consistent with the apparent inexorable escalation of fatness in individual humans, and for the progressive increase in the prevalence of obesity which, among other factors, reflects the difficulty of managing the biological drive to eat.
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The reduction in lean body mass may influence the tonic drive to eat, which may further contribute to influences on body weight regulation.
“The reduction in LBM may also influence the tonic drive to eat, which may further contribute to influences on body weight regulation [71].”
From The Role of Lifestyle Modification with Second-Generation Anti-obesity Medications: Comparisons, Questions, and Clinical Opportunities (2023) · cites this paper as [71]
This observation is consistent with the hypothesis that energy intake is coupled to energy expenditure.
“consistent with the hypothesis that energy intake is coupled to expenditure (20).”
From Daily energy expenditure through the human life course (2021) · cites this paper as [20]
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- Authors
- Blundell, J. E., Gibbons, C., Beaulieu, K., Casanova, N., Duarte, C., Finlayson, G., Stubbs, R. J., & Hopkins, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Leeds (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Blundell, John E
- ORCID
- Venue
- Physiology & Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-05
- Volume
- 219
- Pages
- 112846
- ISSN
- 0031-9384 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3007135709
- Cited by
- 115
- References
- 90
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 5 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 2.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Physiology & Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- Research at York St John (York St John University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/G005524/1, BBS/B/05079)
- Seventh Framework Programme (266408)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Keywords
- appetite regulation, energy expenditure, energy intake, fat-free mass, resting metabolic rate, energy balance, obesity, physical activity, skeletal muscle, evolutionary perspective
- MeSH terms
- Appetite, Appetite Regulation, Body Composition, Energy Intake, Energy Metabolism, Humans
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