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Global survey of the omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in the blood stream of healthy adults
Open accessAbstract
Studies reporting blood levels of the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), were systematically identified in order to create a global map identifying countries and regions with different blood levels. Included studies were those of healthy adults, published in 1980 or later. A total of 298 studies met all inclusion criteria. Studies reported fatty acids in various blood fractions including plasma total lipids (33%), plasma phospholipid (32%), erythrocytes (32%) and whole blood (3.0%). Fatty acid data from each blood fraction were converted to relative weight percentages (wt.%) and then assigned to one of four discrete ranges (high, moderate, low, very low) corresponding to wt.% EPA+DHA in erythrocyte equivalents. Regions with high EPA+DHA blood levels (>8%) included the Sea of Japan, Scandinavia, and areas with indigenous populations or populations not fully adapted to Westernized food habits. Very low blood levels (≤4%) were observed in North America, Central and South America, Europe, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Africa. The present review reveals considerable variability in blood levels of EPA+DHA and the very low to low range of blood EPA+DHA for most of the world may increase global risk for chronic disease.
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“Data revealed that geographical regions with high EPA + DHA blood levels (> 8%) included countries adjacent to the Sea of Japan, Scandinavia, and areas with indigenous populations or populations not fully adapted to Westernized food habits.”
From Role of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human nutrition and health: Review of recent studies and recommendations (2021) · cites this paper as [25]
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“Very low blood levels (≤ 4%) were observed in North, Central, and South America, Europe, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Africa.”
From Role of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human nutrition and health: Review of recent studies and recommendations (2021) · cites this paper as [25]
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“The authors concluded that, globally, there is considerable variability in EPA + DHA blood levels, and that the very low to low range of blood EPA + DHA levels for most regions of the world may increase global risk for chronic disease.”
From Role of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human nutrition and health: Review of recent studies and recommendations (2021) · cites this paper as [25]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Stark, K. D., Van Elswyk, M. E., Higgins, M. R., Weatherford, C. A., & Salem, N.
- Affiliations
- University of Waterloo (CA)
- Weatherford (United States) (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stark, Ken D.
- ORCID
- Stark, Ken D.
- Venue
- Progress in Lipid Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-07
- Volume
- 63
- Pages
- 132-152
- ISSN
- 0163-7827 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2400784246
- Cited by
- 519
- References
- 572
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 63 · 2021: 83 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 8
- FWCI
- 6.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Progress in Lipid Research (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UWSpace (University of Waterloo) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Aquaculture Nutrition and Growth
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Keywords
- omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, blood fatty acid levels, plasma phospholipids, erythrocyte fatty acids, regional variation, healthy adults, chronic disease risk, dietary fat intake
- MeSH terms
- Docosahexaenoic Acids, Erythrocytes, Fatty Acids, Humans, Eicosapentaenoic Acid, Biomarkers, Fatty Acids, Omega-3, Databases, Factual, Dietary Supplements
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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