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Cited by 90Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorAttachment and Relationship DynamicsNeuropeptides and Animal Physiology

Long-term oxytocin administration enhances the experience of attachment

Open access
Bernaerts, Sylvie, Prinsen, Jellina, Berra, Emmely, Bosmans, Guy, Steyaert, Jean, Alaerts, Kaat·2017·Psychoneuroendocrinology
DOI 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.01.010
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Abstract

The neuropeptide 'oxytocin' (OT) is known to play a pivotal role in a variety of complex social behaviors by promoting a prosocial attitude and interpersonal bonding. Previous studies showed that a single-dose of exogenously administered OT can affect trust and feelings of attachment insecurity. With the present study, we explored the effects of two weeks of daily OT administration on measures of state and trait attachment using a double-blind between-subjects randomized placebo-controlled design. In 40 healthy young adult men state and trait attachment were assessed before and after two weeks of daily intranasal OT (24 IU) or placebo using the State Adult Attachment Scale and the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment. Mood, social responsiveness and quality of life were additionally assessed as secondary outcome measures. Reductions in attachment avoidance and increases in reports of attachment toward peers were reported after two weeks of OT treatment. Further, treatment-induced changes were most pronounced for participants with less secure attachment towards their peers. indicating that normal variance at baseline modulated treatment response. OT treatment was additionally associated with changes in mood, indicating decreases in feelings of tension and (tentatively) anger in the OT group, not in the placebo group. Further, at the end of the two-week trial, both treatment groups (OT, placebo) reported to experience an increase in social responsiveness and quality of life, but the effects were only specific to the OT-treatment in terms of reports on 'social motivation'. In summary, the observed improvements on state and trait dimensions of attachment after a multiple-dose treatment with OT provide further evidence in support of a pivotal role of OT in promoting the experience of attachment.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Two weeks of daily intranasal oxytocin (24 IU) in 40 healthy young adult men reduced state attachment avoidance and increased trait attachment toward peers compared with placebo. Effects on peer attachment were strongest in participants with less secure baseline peer attachment, and oxytocin was also associated with reduced tension and tentatively reduced anger.

Key findings

  • Trait peer attachment (IPPA Friends) increased in the oxytocin group but not placebo: significant group × time interaction, F(1,38)=6.49, p<.05, η²=.15; OT group F(1,38)=6.11, p<.05; Cohen’s d=.75 with outliers, d=.64 without.
  • State attachment avoidance (SAAM) decreased in the oxytocin group but not placebo: group × time F(1,38)=4.36, p<.05, η²=.10; OT group F(1,38)=5.35, p<.05; Cohen’s d=.63. No significant effects were found for SAAM attachment security or anxiety.
  • The peer-attachment effect was moderated by baseline attachment: a significant treatment group × baseline score interaction (β=-.64, t(35)=-2.17, p<.05) indicated that oxytocin enhanced IPPA peer attachment particularly among those with low peer attachment at baseline.
  • Mood and secondary outcomes: OT reduced tension (F(1,38)=4.29, p<.05) and anger (F(1,38)=4.37, p<.05), though the anger effect may have been driven by an outlier (without outliers: F(1,36)=2.03, p=.16). Social motivation increased specifically in the OT group (group × time F(1,38)=3.85, p=.05; OT F(1,38)=16.51, p<.001; PL F(1,38)=1.66, p=.21; d=.60); both groups improved in social responsiveness and quality of life.

Methods

  • Double-blind, between-subjects, randomized placebo-controlled trial in 40 healthy young adult males: 20 oxytocin (mean age 20.70, SD=2.72) and 20 placebo (mean age 21.55, SD=2.39).
  • Participants self-administered intranasal oxytocin 24 IU or saline daily for 14 consecutive days. Primary outcomes were state attachment (SAAM) and trait attachment (IPPA); secondary outcomes were mood (POMS), social responsiveness (SRS-Adult), and quality of life (WHOQOL-Bref).
  • Repeated-measures ANOVAs tested group × time effects; stepwise multiple regression tested baseline-by-treatment interactions; Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated, with primary analyses reported with and without outliers.

Limitations

  • Stated by the authors: the sample was somewhat small and restricted to males, so future work is needed to establish generalizability.
  • Evident from the text: participants were healthy young adult men, 90% university students, limiting generalizability to women, older adults, or clinical populations; treatment lasted only two weeks and outcomes were self-report.
  • Evident from the text: some findings were sensitive to outliers (e.g., anger and SRS total), and several interaction tests had modest power (e.g., power=.20–.53 for some effects), so secondary and mood findings should be interpreted cautiously.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.01.010

Cites

42 of 42 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

39 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

0 of 23 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Two weeks of daily intranasal oxytocin treatment increased self-reported trait attachment toward peers in healthy young adult men.

    “OT treatment decreased attachment avoidance and increased attachment toward peers”
    • Also stated in: § 3. Results · hedged
      “indicating an increase in self-reported trait attachment towards peers in the OT group (F(1,38) = 6.11, p < .05),not in the PL group”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The effect of oxytocin on trait attachment toward peers was most pronounced in participants with less secure peer attachment at baseline.

    “Participants with less secure peer attachment showed most pronounced OT effects”
    • Also stated in: § 3. Results · hedged
      “the OT treatment appeared to enhance IPPA peer attachment particularly among those with low peer attachment at baseline.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Two weeks of daily intranasal oxytocin (24 IU) treatment decreased state attachment avoidance in healthy young adult men.

    “OT treatment decreased attachment avoidance and increased attachment toward peers”
    • Also stated in: § 3.1.2. State attachment: State Adult Attachment Measure (SAAM) · plain
      “state attachment avoidance significantly decreased after the two-week treatment in the OT group (F(1,38) = 5.35, p < .05),but not in the PL group”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A significant treatment group x baseline score interaction effect was revealed for IPPA peer attachment, indicating that the treatment effect differed according to initial baseline severity.

    “Importantly, also a significant 'treatment group x baseline score' interaction effect was revealed (β = -.64,t(35) = -2.17,p < .05),indicating that the treatment effect differed according to initial (baseline) severity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    No significant treatment-related changes were revealed for attachment towards an important person.

    “Reports of attachment towards an important person were only completed by a subset of participants (11 OT, 16 PL) and no significant treatment-related changes were revealed for this subscale (F(1,25) = 0.09, p = .77;η 2 = .003;power = .06).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 22
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Oxytocin treatment was associated with decreased feelings of tension in the OT group, not in the placebo group.

    “indicating decreases in feelings of tension and (tentatively) anger in the OT group, not in the placebo group.”
    • Also stated in: § 3.1.4. Treatment-related changes in mood: Profile of Mood States (POMS) · plain
      “participants receiving OT reported to feel significantly less tense ('group x time' interaction: F(1,38) = 4.29, p < .05;η 2 = .10;power = .52)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Oxytocin treatment specifically increased self-reported social motivation in the OT group, not in the placebo group.

    “the effects were only specific to the OTtreatment in terms of reports on 'social motivation'.”
    • Also stated in: § 3.1.4. Treatment-related changes in mood: Profile of Mood States (POMS) · hedged
      “Subsequent analysis of the subscale scores did reveal a treatment-specific effect for the subscale 'social motivation' (group x time: F(1,38) = 3.85, p = .05;η 2 = .03;power = .20),indicating an increase in self-reported social motivation in the OT group (F(1,38) = 16.51,p < .001),not in the PL group (F(1,38) = 1.66, p = .21)(Cohen's d = .60,medium effect) (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Oxytocin treatment was associated with decreased feelings of anger in the OT group, not in the placebo group, but this effect may have been driven by an outlier.

    “and (tentatively) anger in the OT group, not in the placebo group.”
    • Also stated in: § 3.1.4. Treatment-related changes in mood: Profile of Mood States (POMS) · hedged
      “less angry ('group x time' interaction: F(1,38) = 4.37, p < .05;η 2 = .10;power = .53)after two weeks of nasal spray treatment (Figure 2), but note that the effect on angry mood states may have been driven by an outlier subject”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both treatment groups reported an increase in social responsiveness after two weeks, but the effect was not specific to oxytocin treatment.

    “both treatment groups (OT, placebo) reported to experience an increase in social responsiveness and quality of life, but the effects were only specific to the OTtreatment in terms of reports on 'social motivation'.”
    • Also stated in: § 3.1.4. Treatment-related changes in mood: Profile of Mood States (POMS) · hedged
      “participants of both treatment groups reported lower total SRS-scores (increased social responsiveness) (main effect of time: with outliers: F(1,38) = 17.94, p < .001,without outliers: F(1,36), p < .001).Although tentatively more pronounced in the OT group (with outliers: F(1,38) = 14.42; p < .001;without outliers: F(1,36) = 23.44,p < .001)compared to the PL group (F(1,38) = 4.80; p = .034),the”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Across treatment groups, baseline reports on attachment towards peers, mother and father were significantly inter-correlated.

    “Across treatment groups, baseline reports on attachment towards peers, mother and father were significantly inter-correlated (all, r > .62;p < .001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No significant treatment group x baseline score interaction effect was revealed for SAAM attachment avoidance, indicating that the main effect of treatment was constant irrespective of initial baseline score.

    “No significant 'treatment group x baseline score' interaction effect was revealed (β = -.08,t(36) = -.35,p = .73),indicating that the main effect of treatment (the vertical distance between the regression lines in figure 1B) was constant irrespective of initial baseline score.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No significant group x time interaction effects were revealed for reports of attachment security and attachment anxiety, indicating that the two-week oxytocin treatment did not exert a significant effect on these subscales.

    “No significant 'group x time' interaction effects were revealed for reports of 'attachment security' (F(1,38) = .50,p = .49;η 2 = .01;power = .11)and 'attachment anxiety' (F(1,38) = .001,p < .97;η 2 < .001;power = .05),indicating that the twoweek OT treatment did not exert a significant effect on these subscales.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For reports of trait attachment towards mother and father, scores tended to increase after two weeks of oxytocin treatment, but the change failed to reach significance.

    “For the reports of trait attachment towards 'Mother' and 'Father', scores tended to increase after two weeks of OT treatment, but the change failed to reach significance (Mother: F(1,38) = 1.97; p = .17;η 2 = .05;power = .28)(Father: with outlier: F(1,37) = 1.26; p = .03;η 2 = .05,power = .20;without outlier: F(1,36) = .34;p = .56;η 2 = .01,power = .09).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No significant treatment-related effects were found for the SRS subscales social awareness, social communication, and rigidity/repetitiveness.

    “No significant treatment-related effects were found for the other subscales (social awareness: F(1,38) = 1.16, p = .29;η 2 = .03;power = .18)(social communication: F(1,38) = 0.10, p = .75;η 2 = .003;power = .06)(rigidity/repetitiveness: F(1,38) = 0.09, p = .76;η 2 = .002;power = .06).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Treatment-related decreases in attachment avoidance (SAAM) were positively correlated with decreases in reports of anger.

    “Correlation analysis revealed that treatment-related decreases in attachment avoidance (SAAM) were positively correlated with decreases in reports of anger (with outlier: r = .52;p < .05),but not tension (r = .22;p = .33),but note that the effect of angry mood states may again have been driven by an outlier subject (i.e., no significant effect after removal of the outliers: without outlier: r = .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Only in the oxytocin group, changes in quality of life were positively associated with changes in reported peer attachment (IPPA); in the placebo group, this association was not significant.

    “Only in the OT group however, not in the PL group, changes in quality of life were positively associated with changes in reported peer attachment (IPPA) (OT: r = .50,p < .05)(PL: r = -.16;p = .50).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The placebo nasal spray is inert with respect to attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Oxytocin treatment was associated with decreases in feelings of tension and (tentatively) anger in the oxytocin group, but not in the placebo group.

    “OT treatment was also associated with changes in mood, indicating decreases in feelings of tension and anger in the OT group, not in the placebo group.”
    • Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · hedged
      “the current results indicate that after two weeks of treatment, feelings of tension and (tentatively) anger were significantly reduced in the OT group, not in the PL group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The placebo nasal spray is inert with respect to attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.
    • Rests on an assumption: The two-week treatment duration is sufficient to detect changes in attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For SAAM attachment avoidance, no significant difference was revealed between the slopes of the regression lines of the OT and PL treatment groups, indicating that the main effect of treatment was constant irrespective of initial baseline score.

    “For changes in SAAM 'attachment avoidance' (lower panel B), no significant difference was revealed between the slopes of the regression lines of the OT and PL treatment groups, indicating that the main effect of treatment (the vertical distance between the regression lines) was constant irrespective of initial baseline score.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The placebo nasal spray is inert with respect to attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.
    • Rests on an assumption: The two-week treatment duration is sufficient to detect changes in attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The two-week oxytocin treatment was well tolerated by all participants with no reports of adverse events or impact on overall well-being.

    “The two-week treatment was welltolerated by all participants with no reports of adverse events or impact on overall well-being.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The placebo nasal spray is inert with respect to attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.
    • Rests on an assumption: The two-week treatment duration is sufficient to detect changes in attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Quality of life scores were overall higher in the placebo group compared to the oxytocin group, both at baseline and post-treatment.

    “a main effect of 'treatment' indicated that quality of life scores were overall higher in the PL group, compared to the OT group (F(1,38) = 4.75; p < .05)(both at baseline and post-treatment).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The placebo nasal spray is inert with respect to attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No significant effects were found for depression, vigor, or fatigue mood states.

    “No significant effects were found for the other mood states (depression: with outliers: F(1,38) = 1.3, p = .25;η 2 = .03;power = .21;without outliers: F(1,35) = .00,p = 1.00, η 2 = .00,power = .05)(vigor: F(1,38) = .15,p = .70;η 2 = .003;power = .06)(fatigue: F(1,38) = .21,p = .65;η 2 = .006;power = .07).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A single dose of oxytocin significantly increased the readiness to bear social risks arising through interpersonal interactions.

    “using a social trust game with monetary stakes, Kosfeld et al. (2005) showed that a single-dose of OT significantly increased the readiness to bear social risks arising through interpersonal interactions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kosfeld et al. (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationcitation

    Together, the aforementioned studies provide promising indications that a single dose of exogenously administered oxytocin can affect trust and attachment behavior in humans.

    “Together, these aforementioned studies provide promising indications that a single-dose of exogenously administered OT can affect trust and attachment behavior in humans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The effects of exogenously administered oxytocin on trust and trust adaptation are associated with reductions in neural activity of brain regions implicated in fear processing (amygdala and midbrain regions).

    “subsequent neuroimaging work provided indications that the effects of exogenously administered OT on trust and trust adaptation were associated with reductions in neural activity of brain regions that are implicated in fear processing (amygdala and midbrain regions) (Baumgartner et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baumgartner et al., 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Participants were randomly allocated to receive oxytocin or placebo nasal sprays.

    “Participants were randomly allocated to receive OT or placebo (PL) nasal sprays (20 OT, mean age = 20.70,S.D. = 2.72; 20 PL, mean age = 21.55,S.D. = 2.39).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    No extreme outlier scores were identified in the distribution of pre- and post-treatment scores for any questionnaire.

    “No extreme outlier scores were identified in the distribution of the pre-and post-treatment scores for any of the questionnaires.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Single doses of oxytocin administration influence self-reports on agency towards self or others, positively influencing communal traits and agency towards others in avoidantly attached individuals.

    “Also self-reports on agency towards self or others were shown to be influenced by single doses of OT administration, indicating that in avoidantly attached individuals, OT positively influenced communal traits and agency towards others (Bartz et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bartz et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Blinding was successful in that only two participants correctly guessed they had received oxytocin, while all other participants thought they had received placebo.

    “Only two participants correctly guessed to have received the OT treatment.All other participants thought they had received PL.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Only minimal side effects were reported and side effects were independent of treatment.

    “only minimal side effects were reported and effects were independent of treatment (e.g., participants from both treatment groups reported to feel more focused (2 OT; 2 PL) or confident (1 OT; 1 PL)).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Genetic variations in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) of prairie voles are related to social attachment and partner preference.

    “recent research showed that genetic variations in the OT-receptor gene (OXTR) of prairie voles are related to social attachment and partner preference (King et al., 2015)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites King et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Only male participants were recruited to avoid sex differences in oxytocin response or potential interactions with the female hormonal cycle.

    “Only male participants were recruited to avoid sex differences in OT response or potential interactions with the female hormonal cycle.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The percentage of days on which the nasal spray was administered in the presence of others was not significantly different between treatment groups.

    “Percentage of days at which the spray was administered in the presence of others was not significantly different between treatment groups (OT: 75.6 % (SD 23.8); PL: 69.8 % (SD 28.6); t(34)= .32;p = .75).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Intranasal oxytocin can facilitate the development of trust and cooperation, particularly in adults with high attachment avoidance, by reducing betrayal aversion.

    “De Dreu (2012) proved that intranasal OT can facilitate the development of trust and cooperation in particular in adults with high attachment avoidance (by reducing betrayal aversion).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites De Dreu (2012) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    All primary statistical analyses are reported with and without exclusion of outliers.

    “For completeness, all primary statistical analyses are reported with and without exclusion of these outliers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study used a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, between-subjects design.

    “The study design involved a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, between-subjects trial to assess multiple-dose effects of intranasal oxytocin (OT) administration.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “using a double-blind betweensubjects randomized placebo-controlled design.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Intranasally administered oxytocin can increase trust among human individuals.

    “seminal work by Kosfeld et al. (2005) showed that intranasally administered OT can increase trust among human individuals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kosfeld et al. (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In human infants, polymorphisms in the OXTR gene are associated with variations in attachment security.

    “Also in human infants, polymorphisms in the OXTR gene have been associated with variations in attachment security (Chen et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chen et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Endogenous levels of oxytocin in plasma are associated with maternal or paternal bonding behaviors, attachment-related thoughts and infant social engagement in naturalistic settings.

    “Associations have also been shown between endogenous levels of OT in plasma and maternal or paternal bonding behaviors, attachment-related thoughts and infant social engagement in naturalistic settings (Feldman et al., 2010(Feldman et al., , 2007;;Gordon et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Feldman et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Feldman et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gordon et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Studies investigating a link between plasma oxytocin levels and trust behavior in experimental settings have yielded mixed results.

    “However, studies investigating a link between plasma OT levels and trust behavior in experimental settings (trust game paradigms), have yielded mixed results with some studies reporting tentative links (Zak et al., 2005;Zhong et al., 2012), while others failed to reveal a significant correlation (Christensen et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Zak et al., 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Zhong et al., 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Christensen et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin plays a pivotal role in a variety of complex social behaviors by promoting a prosocial attitude and interpersonal bonding.

    “The neuropeptide 'oxytocin' (OT) is known to play a pivotal role in a variety of complex social behaviors by promoting a prosocial attitude and interpersonal bonding.”
    • Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · boosted
      “The neuropeptide 'oxytocin' (OT) is known to play a pivotal role in a variety of complex social behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bakermans-Kranenburg and van IJzendoorn (2013)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bartz et al. (2011)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Guastella and MacLeod (2012) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The included sample was somewhat small and restricted to males.

    “we note that the included sample was somewhat small and restricted to males.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The more pronounced effects on peer attachment compared to parent attachment may reflect the sample consisting primarily of campus-based university students with limited or no parent-contact during the two-week trial.

    “Note however that the observation of more pronounced effects on peer attachment, compared to parent attachment may reflect a particularity of the included sample which consisted primarily of campus-based university students with limited or no parent-contact during the two-week trial.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Attachment style can be transiently influenced or shaped by situational factors such as major life events or other contextual factors.

    “More recently however, it has been suggested that attachment style can be transiently influenced or shaped by situational factors such as major life events or other contextual factors (Cozzarelli et al., 2003;Davila et al., 1997;Davila and Sargent, 2003;Feeney and Noller, 1992;Gillath and Shaver, 2007;Hammond and Fletcher, 1991).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cozzarelli et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Davila et al., 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Davila and Sargent, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study was a double-blind, between-subject, randomized placebo-controlled trial.

    “The current study presents results on a double-blind, between-subject, randomized placebocontrolled trial assessing the effects of two weeks of daily OT administration on measures of state and trait attachment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    A two-week treatment with intranasally administered oxytocin induced improvements in reports of attachment avoidance and secure peer attachment, particularly in individuals with avoidant or insecure attachment styles.

    “To conclude, a two-week treatment with intranasally administered OT was shown to induce improvements in reports of attachment avoidance and secure peer attachment, particularly in individuals with avoidant or insecure attachment styles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The placebo nasal spray is inert with respect to attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.
    • Rests on an assumption: The two-week treatment duration is sufficient to detect changes in attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.
40 of 40

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The placebo nasal spray is inert with respect to attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.

    “The current study presents results on a double-blind, between-subject, randomized placebocontrolled trial assessing the effects of two weeks of daily OT administration on measures of state and trait attachment.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The two-week treatment duration is sufficient to detect changes in attachment, mood, social responsiveness, and quality of life.

    “after two weeks of nasal spray administration, both treatment groups reported an improvement in quality of life”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • A prior study from the authors' lab showed that 2 weeks of oxytocin treatment in typically developing young-adult men reduced self-reported feelings of attachment avoidance and increased self-reported feelings of secure attachment toward peers.

    “While prior multiple-dose trials mainly explored the effects of treatment on these core autism symptom domains, a recent study from our lab [17] showed that 2 weeks of OT treatment in typically developing young-adult men reduced self-reported feelings of attachment avoidance and increased self-reported feelings of secure attachment toward peers.”

    From Behavioral effects of multiple-dose oxytocin treatment in autism: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial with long-term follow-up (2020) · cites this paper as [17]

  • The initial sample size (n = 40) was set to be comparable to three prior studies showing significant effects of multiple-dose oxytocin treatment on similar outcome measures.

    “The initial sample size (n = 40) was set to be comparable to three prior studies showing significant effects of multiple-dose OT treatment on similar outcome measures [8, 9, 17].”

    From Behavioral effects of multiple-dose oxytocin treatment in autism: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial with long-term follow-up (2020) · cites this paper as [17]

  • A previous study from our lab demonstrated similar treatment-specific reductions in perceived avoidant attachment and improvements in perceived secure attachment to peers after a 2-week course of OT treatment in neurotypical men.

    “Overall, the observation of a beneficial effect of OT on feelings of approachability is in line with findings from a previous study from our lab [17], in which we demonstrated similar treatment-specific reductions in perceived avoidant attachment (as well as improvements in perceived secure attachment to peers) after a 2-week course of OT treatment in neurotypical men.”

    From Behavioral effects of multiple-dose oxytocin treatment in autism: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial with long-term follow-up (2020) · cites this paper as [17]

  • In a previous study from our lab, the POMS revealed no treatment-specific changes in vigor but OT-specific reductions in feelings of tension and anger after a 2-week OT treatment in neurotypical men.

    “In a previous study from our lab [17], the POMS was also adopted to evaluate the effects of a 2-week OT treatment in neurotypical men, and while here, no treatment-specific changes in vigor were detected, the POMS revealed OT-specific reductions in feelings of tension and anger.”

    From Behavioral effects of multiple-dose oxytocin treatment in autism: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial with long-term follow-up (2020) · cites this paper as [17]

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value: F(1,38) = 3.90, p = .05

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .05 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .056. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .056

  • Inconsistent p-value: F(1,38) = .10,p = .77

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .77 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .754. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .77 · recomputed p = .754

  • Inconsistent p-value: F(1,38) = 3.85, p = .05

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .05 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .057. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .057

  • Inconsistent p-value: F(1,38) = .40,p = .54

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .54 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .531. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .54 · recomputed p = .531

4 of 4

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upF(1, 38) = 0.1reported p = .77 · recomputed p = .754

    “F(1,38) = .10,p = .77”

  • Doesn’t add upF(1, 38) = 0.4reported p = .54 · recomputed p = .531

    “F(1,38) = .40,p = .54”

  • Doesn’t add upF(1, 38) = 3.85reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .057

    “F(1,38) = 3.85, p = .05”

  • Doesn’t add upF(1, 38) = 3.9reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .056

    “F(1,38) = 3.90, p = .05”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 6.49reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .015

    “F(1,38) = 6.49, p < .05”

  • ConsistentF(1, 37) = 8.02reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .007

    “F(1,37) = 8.02, p < .01”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 6.11reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .018

    “F(1,38) = 6.11, p < .05”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 1.28reported p = .27 · recomputed p = .265

    “F(1,38) = 1.28, p = .27”

  • ConsistentF(1, 37) = 0reported p = 1 · recomputed p = 1.000

    “F(1,37) = 0.00, p = 1.0”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.01reported p = .94 · recomputed p = .921

    “F(1,38) = .01,p = .94”

  • ConsistentF(1, 25) = 0.09reported p = .77 · recomputed p = .767

    “F(1,25) = 0.09, p = .77”

  • Consistentt(37) = 1.05reported p = .3 · recomputed p = .301

    “t(37) = 1.05, p = .30”

  • Consistentt(36) = 3.01reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .005

    “t(36) = 3.01, p < .01”

  • Consistentt(35) = -2.17reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .037

    “t(35) = -2.17,p < .05”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 4.36reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .044

    “F(1,38) = 4.36, p < .05”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 5.35reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .026

    “F(1,38) = 5.35, p < .05”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.41reported p = .53 · recomputed p = .526

    “F(1,38) = .41,p = .53”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.5reported p = .49 · recomputed p = .484

    “F(1,38) = .50,p = .49”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.001reported p < .97 · recomputed p = .975

    “F(1,38) = .001,p < .97”

  • Consistentt(38) = -2.07reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .045

    “t(38) = -2.07,p < .05”

  • Consistentt(37) = -3.21reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .003

    “t(37) = -3.21,p < .01”

  • Consistentt(36) = -0.35reported p = .73 · recomputed p = .728

    “t(36) = -.35,p = .73”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 4.29reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .045

    “F(1,38) = 4.29, p < .05”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 4.37reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .043

    “F(1,38) = 4.37, p < .05”

  • ConsistentF(1, 36) = 2.03reported p = .16 · recomputed p = .163

    “F(1,36) = 2.03, p = .16”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 1.3reported p = .25 · recomputed p = .261

    “F(1,38) = 1.3, p = .25”

  • ConsistentF(1, 35) = 0reported p = 1 · recomputed p = 1.000

    “F(1,35) = .00,p = 1.00”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.15reported p = .7 · recomputed p = .701

    “F(1,38) = .15,p = .70”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.21reported p = .65 · recomputed p = .649

    “F(1,38) = .21,p = .65”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 17.94reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,38) = 17.94, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 36) = 23.44reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,36) = 23.44,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 1.3reported p = .26 · recomputed p = .261

    “F(1,38) = 1.30, p = .26”

  • ConsistentF(1, 36) = 3.51reported p = .07 · recomputed p = .069

    “F(1,36) = 3.51, p = .07”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 16.51reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,38) = 16.51,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 1.66reported p = .21 · recomputed p = .205

    “F(1,38) = 1.66, p = .21”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 1.16reported p = .29 · recomputed p = .288

    “F(1,38) = 1.16, p = .29”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.1reported p = .75 · recomputed p = .754

    “F(1,38) = 0.10, p = .75”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.09reported p = .76 · recomputed p = .766

    “F(1,38) = 0.09, p = .76”

  • ConsistentF(1, 38) = 0.27reported p = .6 · recomputed p = .606

    “F(1,38) = .27,p = .60”

39 of 39

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Social-motivation interaction is labeled significant at p = .05

    Major

    The paper calls this treatment-specific interaction significant, although its reported p = .05 does not meet the stated p < .05 threshold. The reported F(1,38) = 3.85 also corresponds to a p-value above .05.

  • Quality-of-life improvement is labeled significant at p = .05

    Major

    The claimed significant main effect of time has a reported p = .05, which does not meet the paper's stated p < .05 threshold. Its reported F(1,38) = 3.90 likewise corresponds to a p-value above .05.

  • Father-attachment result is called nonsignificant despite p = .03

    Minor

    The text says the change failed to reach significance, but reports p = .03 for the father-attachment analysis with the outlier, below the paper's stated p < .05 threshold.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Wald, 1990, The shortened version of the Dutch translation of the Profile of Mood States (POMS), Ned. Tijdschr. Psychol., 45, 86

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Bernaerts, S., Prinsen, J., Berra, E., Bosmans, G., Steyaert, J., & Alaerts, K.
Affiliations
KU Leuven (BE)
Corresponding author
Alaerts, Kaat
ORCID
Venue
Psychoneuroendocrinology
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2017-04
Volume
78
Pages
1-9
ISSN
0306-4530 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.01.010
OpenAlex
W2578883992
Cited by
90
References
41
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 5
FWCI
18.01
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Psychoneuroendocrinology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuropeptides and Animal Physiology
Keywords
oxytocin, attachment, intranasal oxytocin, attachment avoidance, attachment security, peer attachment, mood, social motivation, social responsiveness, quality of life, placebo effect, treatment response variability
MeSH terms
Administration, Intranasal, Adolescent, Affect, Double-Blind Method, Humans, Male, Object Attachment, Oxytocin, Personality, Quality of Life, Social Behavior, Treatment Outcome, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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