Making Memories: Why Time Matters
Open accessAbstract
In the last decade advances in human neuroscience have identified the critical importance of time in creating long-term memories. Circadian neuroscience has established biological time functions via cellular clocks regulated by photosensitive retinal ganglion cells and the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Individuals have different circadian clocks depending on their chronotypes that vary with genetic, age, and sex. In contrast, social time is determined by time zones, daylight savings time, and education and employment hours. Social time and circadian time differences can lead to circadian desynchronization, sleep deprivation, health problems, and poor cognitive performance. Synchronizing social time to circadian biology leads to better health and learning, as demonstrated in adolescent education. In-day making memories of complex bodies of structured information in education is organized in social time and uses many different learning techniques. Research in the neuroscience of long-term memory (LTM) has demonstrated in-day time spaced learning patterns of three repetitions of information separated by two rest periods are effective in making memories in mammals and humans. This time pattern is based on the intracellular processes required in synaptic plasticity. Circadian desynchronization, sleep deprivation, and memory consolidation in sleep are less well-understood, though there has been considerable progress in neuroscience research in the last decade. The interplay of circadian, in-day and sleep neuroscience research are creating an understanding of making memories in the first 24-h that has already led to interventions that can improve health and learning.
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Especially for learning which is new, this result suggests that teaching over time is important in order to consolidate what has been learned.
“Especially for learning which is new, this result suggests that teaching over time is important in order to consolidate what has been learned [82].”
From Can grammatical morphemes be taught? Evidence of gestures influencing second language procedural learning in middle childhood (2023) · cites this paper as [82]
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Impact of Sleepiness and Sleep Deficiency on Public Health—Utility of Biomarkers
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Circadian Photoreception: Spotlight on the Brain
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Flagged first, then by citations
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- National Sleep Foundation (2017). Available online at: https://sleepfoundation.org/press-release/national-sleep-foundation-recommends-new-sleep-times/page/0/1 (Accessed November 20, 2017).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Daylight Saving Time: Neurological and Neuropsychological Implications
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Spaced Repetition Learning in Radiology Education: Exploring Its Potential and Practical Application
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The Embodied Teaching of Spatial Terms: Gestures Mapped to Morphemes Improve Learning
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Five discoveries of Volodymyr Betz. Part one. Betz and the islands of entorhinal cortex
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“Especially for learning which is new, this result suggests that teaching over time is important in order to consolidate what has been learned [82].”
BackgroundFabbri, M., & Martoni, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Cognition · doi:10.3389/fcogn.2025.1683207 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Future studies should examine these mechanisms using neuroscientific methods (Kelley et al., 2018).”
InfluentialIncorporating Key Human “High-Touch” Needs Into eSports
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Utilizing a Meta-memory Strategy to Develop the Secondary School Students’ EFL Translation Skills
El-Sheneti, R. M. A. S. (2023) · Mağallaẗ Al-Qirā'aẗ wa Al-Maʿrifaẗ/Mağallaẗ Al-Qirā'aẗ wa Al-Maʿrifaẗ · doi:10.21608/mrk.2023.305809
Filippo, F. D., Pasquale, M., Biasi, G. D., Faiella, F., Amboni, M., & Viggiano, A. (2025) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2025.2498864 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Time limits refer both to presentation scheduling and retention time of the memory for learned notions (Kelley et al., 2018).”
- Authors
- Kelley, P., Evans, M. D. R., & Kelley, J.
- Affiliations
- The Open University (GB)
- University of Nevada, Reno (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kelley, Paul
- Venue
- Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2018-10-16
- Volume
- 12
- Pages
- 400-400
- ISSN
- 1662-5161 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6198140
- OpenAlex
- W2896341538
- Cited by
- 10
- References
- 153
- Citations by year
- 2025: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 0.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) (acceptedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- long-term memory, circadian rhythm, circadian desynchrony, social time, chronotype, sleep deprivation, memory consolidation, spaced learning, synaptic plasticity, suprachiasmatic nucleus, retinal ganglion cells, cognitive performance, learning interventions
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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