Frequency and the conference of referential validity

Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure

Zajonc, R. B. (1968) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025848 · Cited by 6,745

The abstraction of linguistic ideas

Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1971) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(71)90019-3 · Cited by 1,281

Categories of Human Learning

Melton, A. W. (1964) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2013-0-12392-6 · Cited by 985

Categories of Human Learning

Melton, A. W. (1964) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · Cited by 501

The Volunteer Subject

Wortman, C. B., Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1976) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421418 · Cited by 428

The cognitive side of probability learning.

Estes, W. K. (1976) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.83.1.37 · Cited by 326

A frequency theory of verbal-discrimination learning.

Ekstrand, B. R., Wallace, W. P., & Underwood, B. J. (1966) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0023876 · Cited by 261

Communication and Affect: Language and Thought

Pliner, P. P., Krames, L., Alloway, T. M., & Craik, F. I. M. (1973) · Cited by 239

Psychological probability as a function of experienced frequency.

Attneave, F. (1953) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0057955 · Cited by 197

Effects of "mere exposure" on learning and affect.

Stang, D. J. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0076165 · Cited by 158

Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes

Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4 · Cited by 6,682

Dimensions of Consumer Expertise

Alba, J. W., & Hutchinson, J. W. (1987) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/209080 · Cited by 4,375

Processing Fluency and Aesthetic Pleasure: Is Beauty in the Perceiver's Processing Experience?

Reber, R., Schwarz, N., & Winkielman, P. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3 · Cited by 3,149

Misinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and Successful Debiasing

Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612451018 · Cited by 2,920

Automatic and effortful processes in memory.

Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1979) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.108.3.356 · Cited by 2,812

The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice

Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x · Cited by 2,037

Probabilistic mental models: a Brunswikian theory of confidence

Gigerenzer, G., Hoffrage, U., & Kleinbölting, H. (1991) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.98.4.506 · Cited by 1,506

The Psychology of Fake News

Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2021) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.007 · Cited by 1,360

Feelings and phenomenal experiences

Schwarz, N., Clore, G. L., Kruglanski, A. W., & (eds, E. T. H. (2007) · Cited by 1,350

Metacognitive Experiences in Consumer Judgment and Decision Making

Schwarz, N. (2004) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp1404_2 · Cited by 1,391

Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news

Pennycook, G., Cannon, T. D., & Rand, D. G. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000465 · Cited by 1,268

Managerial Response to Changing Environments: Perspectives on Problem Sensing from Social Cognition

Kiesler, S. B., & Sproull, L. S. (1982) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2392530 · Cited by 1,198

Who falls for fake news? The roles of bullshit receptivity, overclaiming, familiarity, and analytic thinking

Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2020) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12476 · Cited by 879

Illusions of familiarity.

Whittlesea, B. W. A. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.19.6.1235 · Cited by 909

Effects of Perceptual Fluency on Judgments of Truth

Reber, R., & Schwarz, N. (1999) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1006/ccog.1999.0386 · Cited by 843

Knowledge Calibration: What Consumers Know and What They Think They Know

Alba, J. W., & Hutchinson, J. W. (2000) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/314317 · Cited by 832

Automatic processing of fundamental information: The case of frequency of occurrence.

Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1984) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.39.12.1372 · Cited by 818

Unbelieving the unbelievable: Some problems in the rejection of false information.

Gilbert, D. T., Krull, D. S., & Malone, P. S. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.4.601 · Cited by 681

All the News That's Fit to Reprint: Do Investors React to Stale Information?

Tetlock, P. C. (2011) · Review of Financial Studies · doi:10.1093/rfs/hhq141 · Cited by 677

You can't not believe everything you read.

Gilbert, D. T., Tafarodi, R. W., & Malone, P. S. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.221 · Cited by 655

Dissociation of processes in belief: Source recollection, statement familiarity, and the illusion of truth.

Begg, I. M., Anas, A., & Farinacci, S. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.121.4.446 · Cited by 650

Exemplar-based model of social judgment.

Smith, E. R., & Zárate, M. A. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.3 · Cited by 638

Becoming famous overnight: Limits on the ability to avoid unconscious influences of the past.

Jacoby, L. L., Kelley, C., Brown, J. E., & Jasechko, J. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.3.326 · Cited by 623

Knowledge does not protect against illusory truth.

Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N. M., Payne, B. K., & Marsh, E. J. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000098 · Cited by 598

Social Categorization and Behavioral Episodes: A Cognitive Analysis of the Effects of Intergroup Contact

Rothbart, M., & John, O. P. (1985) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1985.tb01130.x · Cited by 595

The truth about the truth: a meta-analytic review of the truth effect

Dechêne, A., Stahl, C., Hansen, J., & Wänke, M. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309352251 · Cited by 592

Rumor psychology: Social and organizational approaches.

DiFonzo, N., & Bordia, P. (2007) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11503-000 · Cited by 535

Beware of samples! A cognitive-ecological sampling approach to judgment biases.

Fiedler, K. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.4.659 · Cited by 480

Ten Benefits of Testing and Their Applications to Educational Practice

Roediger, H. L., III, Putnam, A. L., & Smith, M. A. (2011) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-387691-1.00001-6 · Cited by 496

How warnings about false claims become recommendations

Skurnik, I., Yoon, C., Park, D. C., & Schwarz, N. (2005) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/426605 · Cited by 446

Metacognitive experiences and the intricacies of setting people straight: implications for debiasing and public information campaigns

Schwarz, N., Sanna, L. J., Skurnik, I., & Yoon, C. (2007) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)39003-x · Cited by 441

Threats to the External Validity of Brand Extension Research

Klink, R. R., & Smith, D. C. (2001) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.38.3.326.18864 · Cited by 394

Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: How noisy information processing can bias human decision making.

Hilbert, M. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0025940 · Cited by 391

The Positive and Negative Consequences of Multiple-Choice Testing.

Roediger, H. L., III, & Marsh, E. J. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.5.1155 · Cited by 386

Inside rumor: A personal journey.

Rosnow, R. L. (1991) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.46.5.484 · Cited by 394

Effects of Brand Logo Complexity, Repetition, and Spacing on Processing Fluency and Judgment

Janiszewski, C. A., & Meyvis, T. (2001) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/321945 · Cited by 397

Low-Involvement Learning: Memory without Evaluation

Hawkins, S. A., & Hoch, S. J. (1992) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/209297 · Cited by 426

Improving Consumer Mindset Metrics and Shareholder Value through Social Media: The Different Roles of Owned and Earned Media

Colicev, A., Malshe, A., Pauwels, K., & O'Connor, P. (2018) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1509/jm.16.0055 · Cited by 370

Preference Falsification, Policy Continuity and Collective Conservatism

Kuran, T. (1987) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.2307/2232928 · Cited by 354

The Critical Periphery in the Growth of Social Protests

Barberá, P., Wang, N., Bonneau, R., Jost, J. T., Nagler, J., Tucker, J., & González-Bailón, S. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143611 · Cited by 348

Reversing the truth effect: Learning the interpretation of processing fluency in judgments of truth.

Unkelbach, C. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.33.1.219 · Cited by 380

MINERVA-DM: A memory processes model for judgments of likelihood.

Dougherty, M. R. P., Gettys, C. F., & Ogden, E. E. (1999) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.1.180 · Cited by 356

The self-consistency model of subjective confidence.

Koriat, A. (2011) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0025648 · Cited by 355

Birds of a Feather Flock Conjointly (?): Rhyme as Reason in Aphorisms

McGlone, M. S., & Tofighbakhsh, J. (2000) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00282 · Cited by 320

Which Products Are Best Suited to Mobile Advertising? A Field Study of Mobile Display Advertising Effects on Consumer Attitudes and Intentions

Bart, Y., Stephen, A. T., & Sárváry, M. (2014) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmr.13.0503 · Cited by 322

Credibility of repeated statements: Memory for trivia.

Bacon, F. (1979) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.5.3.241 · Cited by 312

Judging Truth

Brashier, N. M., & Marsh, E. J. (2020) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-050807 · Cited by 288

The knew-it-all-along effect.

Wood, G. S. (1978) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.4.2.345 · Cited by 288

Factors Associated With Non-Adherence to Oral Medication for Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Systematic Review

Jackson, C., Clatworthy, J., Robinson, A., & Horne, R. (2009) · The American Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.1038/ajg.2009.685 · Cited by 287

Hindsight Bias: A By-Product of Knowledge Updating?

Hoffrage, U., Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, G. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.26.3.566 · Cited by 295

Learning facts from fiction

Marsh, E. J. (2003) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/s0749-596x(03)00092-5 · Cited by 276

Misinformation lingers in memory: Failure of three pro-vaccination strategies

Pluviano, S., Watt, C., & Della Sala, S. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0181640 · Cited by 273

Filter Bubbles, Echo Chambers, and Fake News: How Social Media Conditions Individuals to Be Less Critical of Political Misinformation

Rhodes, S. C. (2021) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2021.1910887 · Cited by 311

The effects of repetition frequency on the illusory truth effect

Hassan, A., & Barber, S. J. (2021) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-021-00301-5 · Cited by 315

Social Metacognition: An Expansionist Review

Jost, J. T., Kruglanski, A. W., & Nelson, T. O. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0202_6 · Cited by 265

Repeated Exposure to Suggestion and the Creation of False Memories

Zaragoza, M. S., & Mitchell, K. (1996) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00377.x · Cited by 261

Exploring “fringe” consciousness: The subjective experience of perceptual fluency and its objective bases

Reber, R., Wurtz, P., & Zimmermann, T. D. (2003) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/s1053-8100(03)00049-7 · Cited by 263

The generality of the relation between familiarity and judged validity

Arkes, H. R., Hackett, C., & Boehm, L. (1989) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.3960020203 · Cited by 229

Mistrust, Disinforming News, and Vote Choice: A Panel Survey on the Origins and Consequences of Believing Disinformation in the 2017 German Parliamentary Election

Zimmermann, F., & Kohring, M. (2020) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2019.1686095 · Cited by 227

Inferring the popularity of an opinion from its familiarity: A repetitive voice can sound like a chorus.

Weaver, K. D., Garcia, S. M., Schwarz, N., & Miller, D. T. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.821 · Cited by 235

Political Psychology in the Digital (mis)Information age: A Model of News Belief and Sharing

Van Bavel, J. J., Harris, E. A., Pärnamets, P., Rathje, S., Doell, K. C., & Tucker, J. A. (2021) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12077 · Cited by 213

Reining in rumors

DiFonzo, N., Bordia, P., & Rosnow, R. L. (1994) · Organizational Dynamics · doi:10.1016/0090-2616(94)90087-6 · Cited by 211

The Superego, the Ego, and the Id in Statistical Reasoning

Gigerenzer, G. (2002) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195153729.003.0013 · Cited by 207

Combating disinformation in a social media age

Shu, K., Bhattacharjee, A., Alatawi, F., Nazer, T. H., Ding, K., Karami, M., & Liu, H. (2020) · WIREs Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery · doi:10.1002/widm.1385 · Cited by 198

Understanding How Prior Knowledge Influences Memory in Older Adults

Umanath, S., & Marsh, E. J. (2014) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691614535933 · Cited by 216

Combating fake news: an agenda for research and action

Lazer, D. M. J., Baum, M., Grinberg, N., Friedland, L., Joseph, K., Hobbs, W., & Mattsson, C. E. S. (2017) · Cited by 196

Metacognitive experiences as information: Processing fluency in consumer judgment and decision making

Schwarz, N., Jalbert, M. C., Noah, T., & Zhang, L. (2020) · Consumer Psychology Review · doi:10.1002/arcp.1067 · Cited by 209

Psychology of rumor reconsidered.

Rosnow, R. L. (1980) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.87.3.578 · Cited by 193

Truth by Repetition: Explanations and Implications

Unkelbach, C., Koch, A. S., Silva, R. R., & Garcia‐Marques, T. (2019) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721419827854 · Cited by 208

Mistrust and misinformation: A two-component, socio-epistemic model of belief in conspiracy theories

Pierre, J. M. (2020) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.v8i2.1362 · Cited by 202

The Epistemic Status of Processing Fluency as Source for Judgments of Truth

Reber, R., & Unkelbach, C. (2010) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-010-0039-7 · Cited by 187

Helpful or Harmful? How Frequent Repetition Affects Perceived Statement Credibility

Koch, T., & Zerback, T. (2013) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/jcom.12063 · Cited by 186

Cognitive Optimism: Self-Deception or Memory-Based Processing Heuristics?

Metcalfe, J. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0202_3 · Cited by 168

A Task-Based Taxonomy of Cognitive Biases for Information Visualization

Dimara, E., Franconeri, S., Catherine Plaisant, B., Bezerianos, A., & Dragicevic, P. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2018.2872577 · Cited by 192

Investigating the Robustness of the Illusory Truth Effect Across Individual Differences in Cognitive Ability, Need for Cognitive Closure, and Cognitive Style

keersmaecker, J. D., Dunning, D. A., Pennycook, G., Rand, D. G., Sanchez, C. J., Unkelbach, C., & Roets, A. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167219853844 · Cited by 180

Repetition and the ring of truth: Biasing comments.

Begg, I. M., & Armour, V. (1991) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/h0079004 · Cited by 163

Auditing Fair Value Measurements: A Synthesis of Relevant Research

Martin, R. D., Rich, J. S., & Wilks, T. J. (2006) · Accounting Horizons · doi:10.2308/acch.2006.20.3.287 · Cited by 165

The memorial consequences of multiple-choice testing

Marsh, E. J., Roediger, H. L., III, Bjork, R. A., & Bjork, E. L. (2007) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03194051 · Cited by 161

Determinants of judged validity

Arkes, H. R., Boehm, L. E., & Xu, G. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(91)90026-3 · Cited by 163

Misinformation and Morality: Encountering Fake-News Headlines Makes Them Seem Less Unethical to Publish and Share

Effron, D. A., & Raj, M. (2019) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797619887896 · Cited by 169

The comprehension and validation of social information.

Wyer, R. S., & Radvansky, G. A. (1999) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.1.89 · Cited by 160

The Effectiveness of Social Norms in Fighting Fake News on Social Media

Gimpel, H., Heger, S., Olenberger, C., & Utz, L. (2021) · Journal of Management Information Systems · doi:10.1080/07421222.2021.1870389 · Cited by 167

You Are Here

Phillips, W., & Milner, R. M. (2021) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/12436.001.0001 · Cited by 161

The reiteration effect in hindsight bias.

Hertwig, R., Gigerenzer, G., & Hoffrage, U. (1997) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.1.194 · Cited by 155

Bias in Favor of the Status Quo

Eidelman, S., & Crandall, C. S. (2012) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00427.x · Cited by 172

Motivational interpretations of hindsight bias: An individual difference analysis

Campbell, J. D., & Tesser, A. (1983) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1983.tb00868.x · Cited by 155

Online Hate and Harmful Content

Keipi, T., Näsi, M., Oksanen, A., & Räsänen, P. (2016) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315628370 · Cited by 174

A referential theory of the repetition-induced truth effect

Unkelbach, C., & Rom, S. C. (2017) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.12.016 · Cited by 164

An initial accuracy focus prevents illusory truth

Brashier, N. M., Eliseev, E. D., & Marsh, E. J. (2019) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104054 · Cited by 159

The processing of frequency information: An automatic mechanism?

Hasher, L., & Chromiak, W. (1977) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(77)80045-5 · Cited by 145

Reading is believing: The truth effect and source credibility

Henkel, L. A., & Mattson, M. E. (2011) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.08.018 · Cited by 141

A review of possible effects of cognitive biases on interpretation of rule-based machine learning models

Kliegr, T., Bahník, Š., & Fürnkranz, J. (2021) · Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.artint.2021.103458 · Cited by 139

Legitimacy through CSR disclosures? The advantage outweighs the disadvantages

Bachmann, P., & Ingenhoff, D. (2016) · Public Relations Review · doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2016.02.008 · Cited by 149

The Influence of Amicus Curiae Briefs on U.S. Supreme Court Opinion Content

Collins, P. M., Corley, P. C., & Hamner, J. (2015) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/lasr.12166 · Cited by 138

Automatic encoding of event frequency: Further findings.

Zacks, R. T., Hasher, L., & Sanft, H. (1982) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.8.2.106 · Cited by 138

Psychological adaptations for assessing gossip veracity

Hess, N. H., & Hagen, E. H. (2006) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-006-1013-z · Cited by 140

How persuasive is AI-generated propaganda?

Goldstein, J. A., Chao, J., Grossman, S., Stamos, A., & Tomz, M. (2024) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae034 · Cited by 133

Tweet, but verify: epistemic study of information verification on Twitter

Zubiaga, A., & Ji, H. (2014) · Social Network Analysis and Mining · doi:10.1007/s13278-014-0163-y · Cited by 125

When Debunking Scientific Myths Fails (and When It Does Not): The Backfire Effect in the Context of Journalistic Coverage and Immediate Judgments as Prevention Strategy

Peter, C., & Koch, T. (2016) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/1075547015613523 · Cited by 124

Low-Involvement Learning: Repetition and Coherence in Familiarity and Belief

Hawkins, S. A., Hoch, S. J., & Meyers‐Levy, J. (2001) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp1101_1 · Cited by 126

The generality of the relation between familiarity and judged validity

Arkes, H. R., Hackett, C., & Boehm, L. (1989) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.3960020203 · Cited by 229

The perceived validity of repeated statements: The influence of familiarity and knowledge

Boehm, L. E. (1993) · doi:10.13140/2.1.1427.8087

Determinants of judged validity

Arkes, H. R., Boehm, L. E., & Xu, G. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(91)90026-3 · Cited by 163

Repetition increases the rated validity of statements in areas of high or moderate expertise

Arkes, H., Boehm, L., & Jacobsen, B. N. (1987)

External validity of laboratory experiments: the frequency-validity relationship

Gigerenzer, G. (1984) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422594 · Cited by 98