Meal timing and composition influence ghrelin levels, appetite scores and weight loss maintenance in overweight and obese adults
Abstract
Background Although dietary restriction often results in initial weight loss, the majority of obese dieters fail to maintain their reduced weight. Diet-induced weight loss results in compensatory increase of hunger, craving and decreased ghrelin suppression that encourage weight regain. A high protein and carbohydrate breakfast may overcome these compensatory changes and prevent obesity relapse.Methods In this study 193 obese (BMI 32.2±1.0kg/m(2)), sedentary non diabetic adult men and women (47±7years) were randomized to a low carbohydrate breakfast (LCb) or an isocaloric diet with high carbohydrate and protein breakfast (HCPb). Anthropometric measures were assessed every 4weeks. Fasting glucose, insulin, ghrelin, lipids, craving scores and breakfast meal challenge assessing hunger, satiety, insulin and ghrelin responses, were performed at baseline, after a Diet Intervention Period (Week 16) and after a Follow-up Period (Week 32).Results At Week 16, groups exhibited similar weight loss: 15.1±1.9kg in LCb group vs. 13.5±2.3kg in HCPb group, p=0.11. From Week 16 to Week 32, LCb group regained 11.6±2.6kg, while the HCPb group lost additional 6.9±1.7kg. Ghrelin levels were reduced after breakfast by 45.2% and 29.5% following the HCPb and LCb, respectively. Satiety was significantly improved and hunger and craving scores significantly reduced in the HCPb group vs. the LCb group.Conclusion A high carbohydrate and protein breakfast may prevent weight regain by reducing diet-induced compensatory changes in hunger, cravings and ghrelin suppression. To achieve long-term weight loss, meal timing and macronutrient composition must counteract these compensatory mechanisms which encourage weight regain after weight loss.
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A previous clinical trial showed that, despite similar daily total energy intakes, different energy intakes between breakfast and dinner affected carbohydrate and lipid profiles.
“Our findings are also in agreement with a previous clinical trial in which, despite similar daily total energy intakes, different energy intakes between breakfast and dinner affected carbohydrate and lipid profiles (37) .”
From Effects of consuming later evening meal<i>v</i>. earlier evening meal on weight loss during a weight loss diet: a randomised clinical trial (2021) · cites this paper as [37]
Short- and long-term clinical trials in subjects with T2DM suggested that consuming more lower fat containing proteins than carbohydrates at breakfast help to reduce postprandial hyperglycemia, insulin responses and blood lipids.
“Short- and long-term clinical trials in subjects with T2DM [84,296,297,298,299,300] (Table 2 and Table 3) suggested that consuming more lower fat containing proteins than carbohydrates at breakfast help to reduce postprandial hyperglycemia, insulin responses and blood lipids.”
From Effects of diet, lifestyle, Chrononutrition and alternative dietary interventions on postprandial Glycemia and insulin resistance (2022) · cites this paper as [297]
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- Authors
- Jakubowicz, D., Froy, O., Wainstein, J., & Boaz, M.
- Affiliations
- Tel Aviv University (IL)
- Hebrew University of Jerusalem (IL)
- Wolfson Medical Center (IL)
- Corresponding author
- Jakubowicz, Daniela
- Venue
- Steroids
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-03
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 323-331
- ISSN
- 0039-128X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1991674564
- Cited by
- 167
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 4.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Steroids (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Dietary Effects on Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Diet and metabolism studies
- Keywords
- meal timing, breakfast composition, ghrelin, appetite, weight loss maintenance, weight regain, obesity, overweight, high-protein diet, low-carbohydrate diet, satiety, hunger, craving, compensatory mechanisms, macronutrient composition
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Appetite, Blood Glucose, Diet, Fasting, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Insulin, Male, Middle Aged, Obesity, Satiety Response, Time Factors, Weight Gain, Weight Loss, Lipid Metabolism, Ghrelin, Young Adult
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